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Case studies and triangulation
HL Paper 3: Case studies and triangulation
This section looks at the use of case studies in qualitative research. In addition, we examine the different types of triangulation and why they are important.
Before beginning this section, please be sure to read HL: Understanding case studies
Upon completion of this section, you should be able to discuss the following concepts:
- Case study
- Data triangulation
- Longitudinal vs cross-sectional
- Method triangulation
- Prospective vs retrospective
- Researcher triangulation
Characteristics of case studies
- Case studies typically focus on a single individual, group, or organization that is unusual in some way.
- Case studies often comprise data that has been gathered using a variety of techniques including interviews, observations, and the use of standardized tests, for example. This is known as method triangulation and results in a rich and detailed insight into the behaviours of interest.
- Case studies are usually longitudinal, taking place over a significant period of time.
- Case studies may be retrospective, e.g. collecting data about childhood experiences, or they may be prospective, looking at what will happen to a case from this point forward.
Task 1. Thinking about case studies
Please watch the following short video about hyperthymesia. This is an introduction to the topic for the case studies we will see later.
Although this ability astonishes scientists, its use for us as humans is rather limited. Some people with hyperthymesia struggle to learn and memorize simple things. It is also a potentially negative "skill." You will see in the next video that Jill Price has constant recall of emotional traumas from the past. This interfered with her academic performance as well as her personal relationships.
The following video looks at the work of McGaugh on different cases who have hyperthymesia.
Question
After watching the second video, explain why these studies would be considered "case studies."
All of these women were studied by McGaugh because they were exceptional cases. In addition, he used method triangulation: interviews, cognitive testing, psychometric testing (IQ and personality testing), and observations. In addition, toward the end of the video you can see that they have also used brain scanning to see how their brains may be different from the average person.
What is meant by credibility?
One of the arguments for the use of case studies is that they have high credibility. What does this mean?
Credibility is a term we use in qualitative research that roughly means "validity." Because case studies use method triangulation, we can see if the researcher gets similar results regardless of the method used. So, if the researcher carries out an interview with the participant and discusses how she copes with stress, and then observes that she does actually use those coping strategies in a controlled situation (lab observation), then we know that her response about coping was not simply due to the fact that she was being interviewed, but actually reflects her behaviour under stress.
Case studies provide rich data.
The case study method uses triangulation which increases the credibility (validity) of the findings.
The case study method gives researchers the possibility to investigate cases that could not be set up in research laboratories
Case studies may contradict established theory and helps to develop new theories.
Case studies cannot be replicated and a single case study cannot be generalized to a wider population.
There is a potential risk for researcher bias in case studies, in that the researcher’s own beliefs can influence the way the data are collected and analysed.
Qualitative data depend to a large extent on people’s perceptions and memory. The reliance on memory when reconstructing the case history could be subject to distortion.
Checking for understanding
Since case studies make use of several different research methods, this is a good time to check your understanding of observations, interviews, and case studies.
Choose the best response for each of the following questions.
A researcher carried out a study in which he watched whether people who spent more time on their phones in restaurants would tip more or less than the average. In order to carry out the study, the researcher asked the waitstaff to keep track of both the cost of the meal and the size of the tip for each customer. The researcher sat at a table near the back of the restaurant so that he could easily see the phone use of each customer. Which research method best describes this study?
The participants do not realize that they are being observed, so this is a covert observation. It is taking place in a naturalistic environment. And the researcher does not interact with the participant, therefore, not influencing the outcome of the observation. Therefore, it is also non-participant. If the waitstaff knew the aim of the study, then this could potentially be a participant observation.
Which of the following is not an advantage of a questionnaire?
Questionnaires may eliminate demand characteristics, but only if they are anonymous. If a researcher asks a participant to fill in a questionnaire and then collects it, this makes the questionnaire feel less anonymous and may lead to demand characteristics.
Why are case studies assumed to have high levels of credibility?
Credibility is similar to validity - in other words, the conclusions reached from the study are based on the evidence. Using method triangulation means that if each method produces the same result, then we know our conclusions were credible and that they were not simply due to the choice of research method.
Which of the following is not a key difference between semi-structured and unstructured interviews?
All interview techniques require training in order for researchers to do them effectively.
Your school decides to have a focus group to discuss levels of stress in the IB progam. The school decides that there will be eight students in each focus group – with four from year 1 and four from year 2. During the focus groups, the second-year students tended to dominate the conversation. In the end, it appeared that both groups thought that the program is highly stressful. What confounding variable most likely affected the findings?
In this case, the first-year students may have simply echoed the ideas of the second-year students since they were so vocal. Social loafing would imply that they said nothing, but the findings here argue that both groups thought that the program is highly stressful.
Which of the following is an example of an interviewer effect?
Not wanting to disclose information because of the interviewer's body language is an interviewer effect - that is, something the interview does, or a characteristic of the interviewer, which positively or negatively affects the interview. Answering questions to look tolerant is an example of social desirability effect and acting nervous is something called reactivity.
Which of the following methods has the highest level of ecological validity?
Focus groups are like a naturalistic group conversation. All the rest are artificial human interactions.
A researcher takes notes on children’s conversations on the playground. After 30 hours of observations, she sat down with her team and started reading through the notes, looking for themes that appeared. What type of analysis is this?
A priori coding is when the researcher decides before the observation what they will look for. It usually results in a checklist and frequencies of behaviour are recorded. This is a quantitative approach. A priori coding is a deductive form of analysis. Systems analysis is not a relevant term - just a distractor!
A researcher wants to see how children make decisions when picking out a toy. The researcher tells the child that he wants to see how they know which toy is the best toy in the shop. He follows the children, recording their comments about the toys. He often asks them what they think about certain toys. Which research method is this?
In this case, the child knows that they are part of a study; hence, it is overt. The researcher also interacts with the child - making this a participant observation. Finally, if they are in a real store, the observation is naturalistic.
The key difference between a questionnaire and a survey is
Surveys often use Likert Scales, making them easy to analyse. Both questionnaires and surveys have the possibility of demand characteristics; it depends on what the questions are. Finally, questionnaires may have topics, but they also have specific questions.
Continue to Ethics in qualitative research
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