IB Docs (2) Team
Acculturation
In a globalized world, we often come into contact with other cultures. People may move into another culture either voluntarily or involuntarily. For example, refugees and asylum seekers may move involuntarily to another country because of war or persecution in their own country.
On the other hand, migrant workers, expatriates, and sojourners (e.g. foreign students) move to a new culture voluntarily. When people move into another culture, they often begin to adopt the norms and behaviours of the majority culture through a process called acculturation.
According to Berry (2004), acculturation is the process of cultural and psychological change that takes place as a result of contact between two or more cultural groups. At the individual level, it involves changes in a person's behaviour. Berry (1974) proposed four different acculturation strategies used by individuals: assimilation, integration, separation, and marginalization. Assimilation is when an individual abandons their original culture and adopts the cultural behaviours and values of their new culture. When there is an interest in adopting the behaviours and values of the new culture, while still maintaining the original culture, this is called integration.
When migrants maintain their own culture and minimize contact with the new culture, this is called separation. Finally, marginalization results when it is not really possible to maintain one’s original culture, but because of exclusion or discrimination, it is not possible to assimilate into the new culture.
Berry argues that these four strategies are the result not only of the importance of maintaining one’s culture for the individual, but also situational factors in the new culture.
Berry's Acculturation Model
| Positive relationship with the new culture | |||
| Yes | No | ||
| Importance of maintaining one's original culture | Yes | Integration | Separation |
| No | Assimilation | Marginalization | |
Moving to a new culture often results in a personal battle between enculturation – maintaining one’s cultural identity – and acculturation, changing one’s culture in order to fit in. Remember, we are social animals who have a need to belong, so not feeling one is part of a group can be very stressful. The result of this tension is known as acculturative stress - the psychological, somatic, and social difficulties that may accompany acculturation, often resulting in anxiety, depression, and other forms of mental and physical stress. It is a reduction in the mental health and well-being of ethnic minorities that occurs during the process of adaptation to a new culture. Acculturative stress is often referred to as “culture shock.”
Another aspect of acculturation is what psychologists call acculturation gaps. These are generational differences in acculturation and how this leads to conflict within the family. Immigrant parents and their children live in different cultural worlds. As a result of the school system, children of immigrants will have more contact with the new culture than their parents. They will usually develop language skills faster and acculturate more quickly to the values of the new culture. For immigrant children, it can be difficult to live with the expectations and demands of one culture in the home and another at school. Children may not turn to their parents with problems and concerns, believing their parents do not know the culture; instead, they will turn to peers or adults in the new culture for advice.
In a study carried out by Miranda and Matheny (2000), the researchers wanted to see which factors in the lives of Latino immigrants to the United States would decrease the level of acculturative stress. A random sample of 197 members of two social services agencies completed a questionnaire and a series of standardized tests to assess family cohesion, level of acculturation, acculturative stress, and coping strategies for stress. The study suggests that immigrants with effective coping strategies, good proficiency in English, and a strong family structure were less likely to experience acculturative stress. In addition, immigrants who had spent a longer time in the US were less like to demonstrate this stress and show a higher level of acculturation. The study shows that there are many protective factors that may influence the extent to which an individual acculturates and the effect that this will have on mental health. But are the results of this study only particular to Latino cultures? A study by Lueck and Wilson (2010) suggests that it is not.
Research in psychology: Lueck & Wilson (2010)
The aim of this study was to investigate the variables that may predict acculturative stress in a nationally representative sample of Asian immigrants and Asian Americans. The sample consisted of 2095 Asian Americans. 1271 of the participants were first-generation immigrants who were 18 years and older when they came to the US. The rest of the sample was born in the US to first-generation immigrant parents. The sample consisted of several different Asian cultures, including Chinese, Filipino, and Vietnamese.
The researchers carried out semi-structured interviews. The interviewers had cultural and linguistic backgrounds similar to those of the sample population. Interviews were conducted either over the Internet or face-to-face. A randomly selected sample of participants was contacted to validate the data taken from their interviews.
The interviews measured the participants’ level of acculturative stress. They also measured the impact of language proficiency, language preference, discrimination, social networks, family cohesion, and socioeconomic status on acculturative stress.
In 1433 of the 2095 interviews, participants were found to have acculturative stress according to their acculturative stress score – that is, 70% of the sample.
The study drew the following conclusions.
- A bilingual language preference contributed to lower acculturative stress. Asians who are able to use both languages equally with their friends are able to build up networks of support within and outside their community. Stress may arise when Asian Americans do not know the native language well enough to discuss sensitive issues with family members at home or in the native country who may have limited or no abilities in English
- Although bilingualism is a predictor of low acculturative stress, the preference for speaking English only is a predictor of high acculturative stress.
- Negative treatment – including prejudice, xenophobia, harassment, and threats - significantly contributed to higher acculturative stress.
- Sharing similar values and beliefs as a family significantly contributed to lowering acculturative stress
- Acculturative stress was significantly lower among those who were very satisfied with their economic opportunities in the US and also among immigrants who, if they would have to make the decision again, would still move to the United States.
ATL: Thinking critically
The following questions are examples of questions used in the study by Lueck and Wilson (2010). Evaluate each of the following questions. Why do you think that this question was important to their research? What do you think about the nature of the question? What problems might you predict with the question?
- Do you find it hard interacting with others because of difficulties you have with the English language (Yes/No)
- How often do people treat you unfairly because of your ethnicity? (Never, rarely, sometimes, often)
- We share similar values and beliefs as a family (Strongly disagree, somewhat disagree, somewhat agree, strongly agree)
- In general, would you say you have/your family living here has more money than you need, just enough for your needs, or not enough to meet your needs?
- If you had to make the decision today, would you still move to the US?
Teacher only box1. Do you find it hard interacting with others because of difficulties you have with the English language (Yes/No)
This is a yes/no question - also known as a "forced choice" question. This question may mean that the person filling in the questionnaire does not give more information - or will only give information that supports their choice and omit information that contradicts it. There is also a level of self-awareness required for this question. Not everyone will be able to assess their language proficiency appropriately or be able to link language difficulties to social difficulties.
2. How often do people treat you unfairly because of your ethnicity? (Never, rarely, sometimes, often)
This question wants to see if the participants attribute their treatment in society to their ethnic identity. They are asked to respond using a scale. There are only four options in the scale - this avoids "gravitation to the mean." However, trying to quantify unjust treatment is difficult and it may depend on recent experiences. The peak-end rule plays a potential role in memory distortion in responding to this question.
3. We share similar values and beliefs as a family (Strongly disagree, somewhat disagree, somewhat agree, strongly agree)
This question is asked to see how strongly participants identify with their "original culture." The use of a scale helps to standardize the responses, but the interpretation of "somewhat disagree" and "somewhat agree" may skew responses. The question may also be seen as socially sensitive - meaning that participants might feel it is inappropriate to say no to this question.
4. In general, would you say you have/your family living here has more money than you need, just enough for your needs, or not enough to meet your needs?
This question is about "quality of life." However, the responses are highly subjective. It may make a difference where they are living, what other members of the immigrant community are earning, and what their family situation is - e.g. how many children they have.
5. If you had to make the decision today, would you still move to the US?
This question looks at the level of satisfaction with their choice to move to the US. This, however, is problematic when only asked at one point in time. A bad week (or a great week!) can have a real influence on one's perception. In addition, the original reasons for leaving their home country and coming to the US may be quite different. Some may have felt that they had no choice; others may have seen it as a great opportunity.
Discrimination and acculturation
Experiences of prejudice and discrimination - either directly or indirectly - can lead to high levels of acculturative stress. One way that cultural minorities may respond to this is what is referred to as Reactive identification. This is when the individual strengthens his or her ethnic or racial identity in response to discrimination.
This can be a negative reaction by contributing to the hardening of oppositional attitudes toward the majority culture. However, this can also be a positive reaction. It can be argued that a strong sense of African-American identity led to the Civil Rights movement. The salience of this cultural identity led to a sense of empowerment that motivated people to take action to change the institutionalized discrimination that existed at that time in the USA.
The immigrant paradox
Many studies of acculturation have reported that “greater” degrees of acculturation were associated with problematic health outcomes - a phenomenon known as the immigrant paradox. For example, Alegria et al (2007) found that Hispanics born in the United States, or who have spent a considerable amount of time in the United States, are more likely to be diagnosed with psychiatric disorders than are Hispanics born abroad or who arrived more recently. In addition, Allen et al (2008) found that Hispanic adolescents who speak mostly Spanish are less likely to use drugs and alcohol. So, does this mean that assimilation to another culture is bad for one's health? Well, there is also research that shows the opposite may be true.
Research in psychology: Wang et al (2010)
Wang et al (2010) carried out a study of 119 Cuban-American university students living in Miami. All of the students had at least one parent who had been born in Cuba. 80% of the sample was female. 23% of the students had been born outside of the US. Participants were recruited from an introductory psychology course and asked to fill in an online survey. All of the questions were presented in Likert-scale format.
The researchers wanted to test the relationship between three dimensions of acculturation and positive psychological functioning. The dimensions were: relationship with the Cuban culture, relationship with US culture, and ethnic identification. Positive psychological functioning was measured by levels of depression, anxiety, and self-esteem.
The researchers found that biculturalism was linked with more favorable outcomes (e.g., higher self-esteem, lower depression, and lower anxiety).
But wait - this contradicts the studies above! What is the difference?
The key difference is that this study is bidimensional, whereas the studies above are unidimensional. This study looks at the role of the relationship with both their Cuban culture and the US culture. If you look at the two studies above, you will see that Alegria et al (2007) only looks at the relationship with the host culture, whereas Allen et al (2008) only looks at the relationship with the heritage culture. This is a common criticism of research on acculturation. A more complex understanding of the relationship of an individual with both the heritage and host culture may be necessary to get a better understanding of the role of acculturation on health and well-being.
Methodological considerations
There are many difficulties with carrying out research on acculturation. First, there is often a language problem in giving tests to immigrants. It is not only a question of whether they understand the vocabulary of the test but how they interpret the questions. In addition, when measuring “acculturation,” psychologists make assumptions about what healthy acculturation looks like.
The APA Presidential Task Force on Immigration (2012) summarizes the difficulty of carrying out research on the acculturation of immigrants with the following question: Who is given tests in what language by whom, when, and where?
There are many variables that may influence the experience of migrants to a new culture. These include the age of migration, length of residency, education, sexual orientation, religion, class, and trauma experienced prior to arrival in the new culture. This makes it difficult to find representative samples that can be used to generate a theory about the acculturation experience. In addition, historically such studies have a high attrition rate and low rate of participation.
Finally, there are several ethical considerations in research on acculturation. It is important that in any research the participants are aware of their rights as participants. This includes the right to informed consent, anonymity, and to withdraw from the study. Depending on the culture from which the immigrant comes, they may not be aware of their rights. In addition, in many cultures, the researcher would be seen as higher in the social hierarchy and thus having power and authority over the individual. It is important that the subjective experience of the participants is respected.
As some participants may be illegal or undocumented immigrants, researchers must consider this issue when recruiting participants and publishing their findings. It is important that the identities of such participants are protected so that they and their families are not put at risk.
An example of spiraling causality
It is important to recognize the complexity of the effects of acculturation on health and wellness. One of the things to consider is the experience of acculturation may be different for different groups – for example, for an immigrant vs. a refugee. Refugees arrive in their new culture with trauma, often having suffered war and/or discrimination. They often do not have the option of returning their home country and do not have access to loved ones that they have left behind.
Kraeh et al (2016) carried out a study to see if there is a relationship between a refugee’s level of acculturation and their mental and physical health. For this correlational study, data were collected both by surveys and by carrying out medical examinations on the refugees. The sample was made up of 440 North Korean refugees, ages 30 and older. The sample was mostly female (75%) and had lived an average of three years in Seoul.
The refugees were given two surveys. The first asked questions about their level of acculturation to South Korean society. The second asked about their mental health – rating their levels of depression and anxiety. The medical exams measured resting heart rate and blood pressure.
The results showed a positive correlation between the level of acculturation and psychological health and a negative correlation with resting heart rate. The researchers also found that the relationship between physical and mental health was an example of spiraling causality. Acculturation to the high-stress life of Seoul initially reduced physical health; however, being outside of North Korea increased their mental health. As mental health improved, physical health also improved. In addition, the researchers found that if refugees were employed, they were better adjusted to their new culture and had better overall health.
The focus is on the individual's behaviour and not the behaviour of the host culture. It also emphasizes a unidirectional, rather than a bidirectional, relationship between the two cultures.
There is an implied hierarchical relationship between the two cultures.
There are four distinct patterns of behaviour. This may not be the case. The way in which an individual behaves may be dependent on the social context. Alternative theories use an Alternation Model (LaFromboise, 1993) - that is, people move back and forth between one's own culture and the host culture depending on the situation.
The model is seen as too simplistic. Factors such as the reason for migration, the cultural dimensions of the individual, and the level of similarity between the two cultures may all play key roles in the acculturation process.
ATL: International mindedness
International students who live around the world as a result of their parents' work are often referred to as "Third Culture Kids." This term is defined as an individual who, having spent a significant part of the developmental years in a culture other than the parents’ culture, develops a sense of relationship to all of the cultures while not having full ownership in any. Elements from each culture are incorporated into the life experience, but the sense of belonging is in relationship to others of similar experience. (Pollock, 1988) Other terms that are used to describe this group of people are "global nomads" and "transculturals."
Do such students also experience acculturative stress? It appears that they experience a special kind of stress referred to as reverse culture shock - that is, the stress suffered by some people when they return home after a number of years living outside their country of origin. This can result in unexpected difficulty in readjusting to the culture and values of the home country, now that the previously familiar has become unfamiliar.
The following is part of an interview taken from a study by Fail et al (2004). The participant is a 45+-year-old male who had grown up overseas and attended an international school:
Britain was horrendous. I hadn’t realized, but what had clearly happened, is that X had become home, without any effort on my part. It was all I knew. I was supposed to be English. I don’t look foreign, I don’t sound foreign, and yet I am foreign. I felt disassociated from where I was and from these people who seemed to represent values different from those I had. If I’d gone to any other country, it would have been fine, because that’s what you expect; but I didn’t go to any other country. I went to the one that was supposed to be mine, and it wasn’t. It was quite a shock. It’s like an earthquake.
What do you think that the interviewee means when he said, "yet, I am foreign?" What do you think would be the things that he finds difficult to adjust to? And why do you think that he finds this so shocking?
Checking for understanding
Which of the following is an example of a sojourner?
A sojourner by definition is someone who moves to another country (not simply travels) but does not plan on integrating into the local culture. It is often done for work or education opportunities.
What is the key difference between enculturation and acculturation?
Enculturation is the way that we learn our "home" culture. Since cultures are dynamic, this may change over time - and this is why enculturation is a life-long process. Both enculturation and acculturation can take place through direct tuition (direct instruction) or through observational learning.
Which of the following is not one of the way's that we are enculturated?
This is a definition of acculturation - not enculturation.
What does it mean to say that Samoan society has a "very high power distance index?"
High power distance means that a hierarchy is clearly established and executed in society, without doubt or reason. If there were low power distance, this means that power is distributed - that is, that individuals believe that all people should be part of decision making, regardless of their position.
What conclusion did Odden & Rochat make with regard to how children learn about fishing and the societal hierarchy in the Samoan culture?
Children learned both by fishing on their own (participatory learning) and through observing the adults in the community.
The term Berry used for when it is not possible to adopt the behaviours of a new culture because of discrimination or a lack of acceptance of individuals into the new culture.
Assimiltation and integration are both levels of joining a new culture. Separation is when the new culture is not adopted as a choice of the individual - that is, they do not want to join the new culture, but want to maintain their own culture. Marginalization is when an individual wants to assimilate or integrate, but is not given the chance because of discrimination or exclusion.
Which of the following is not an example of acculturative stress which might happen if you were to move to a new country?
Although acculturative stress may play a role in making language learning difficult, it is not in and of itself an example of acculturative stress.
According to Miranda and Matheny (2000), which of the following is not a protective factor against acculturative stress?
Even if you have spent time living in another country, it is still likely that you will experience acculturative stress when you move to another country.
One of the problems of studies of acculturation of immigrants is a high attrition rate. What does this mean?
Attrition means that people drop out of a study.
Which of the following is an ethical consideration in the study of immigrants?
As with all research, the data of the participants must be anonymized. This may be especially important if there are illegal or undocumented immigrants that are being interviewed. The publishing of the results should not put their families at risk.
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