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Globalization: Research methods

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  • Globalization: Research methods

Globalization: Research methods

After completing this lesson, you should be able to:

  • Identify two research methods used in the study of globalization
  • Evaluate the strengths and limitations of the research methods
  • Discuss the extent to which we can determine the effects of globalization on behaviour

Key concepts

At the end of this component of the module, you should be able to discuss how the following terms are relevant to the study of globalization:

  • Bidirectional ambiguity
  • Construct validity
  • Demand characteristics
  • Ecological fallacy
  • Sampling bias

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Research methods

In the previous section of this module, you looked at three studies and were asked to identify their research methods.

Before we look at the problems of studying globalization, see if you can list at least one strength and one limitation of a natural experiment and a correlational study.

Natural experiments

  • Natural experiments are characterized by the fact that the independent variable is naturally occurring, i.e. the change between the experimental and control conditions is brought about as a consequence of factors that are outside of the experimenters' control, e.g. before and after the introduction of western TV channels on Fiji.
  • As changes in the independent variable are naturally occurring, the findings of natural experiments may lack internal validity, as changes in the DV may have arisen due to extraneous factors, i.e. other societal changes which accompanied the introduction of Western TV were actually responsible for changes in the DV.
  • As natural experiences are out of the control of the researcher, it makes it difficult to test the reliability of the data as the experiment cannot be exactly replicated.
  • As they are naturally occurring, they have high ecological validity.

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Correlational studies

  • Correlational studies have no manipulated variable and therefore do not seek to establish causal relationships as is the case with experimental studies; they have two or more measured variables known as co-variables which are measured using quantitative data, e.g. through some sort of rating scale.
  • Correlational studies are common in areas of psychology where it may not be possible to ethically or practically manipulate variables as part of an experiment; as there is no attempt to establish causality, internal validity relates solely to the extent to which the instruments used to measure the co-variables provide accurate and meaningful data.
  • Correlational research is mostly cross-sectional, rather than longitudinal. This means we only see a snapshot in time and do not see change over time.

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Problems with studying globalization

There are several other problems with trying to study the effects of globalization on behaviour.  They include the following important concepts.

Construct validity

How do we measure the level of globalization in a country?  In an individual?

Operationalizing and measuring globalization is difficult. Much of the data is self-reported. There is also an assumption that people that spend a lot of time on the Internet, for example, are taking part in the global community - but they could be looking only at local websites - that is, sites in Chinese that deal with Chinese cultural issues. 

In addition, there are too many variables that play a role in globalization - e.g. travel, exposure to foreign media, social class, language skills - and many more.  These factors may influence the degree to which globalization may affect culture. And since globalization is an ongoing process, a single snapshot in time is not adequate to understand the effects of globalization, longitudinal research is necessary.

Ecological fallacy

Several studies look at how globalization affects people from collectivistic cultures. Ogihara & Uchida (2014), a study described in the textbook that showed that Japanese employees for a Western firm who were more achievement-oriented had lower subjective well-being. This assumes that all Japanese participants, since they are enculturated in Japanese culture, share the same values.  This is known as the ecological fallacy.  It could very well be that a disconnection from their local culture was the reason that they took the job with the Westernized company in the first place. This is also a problem of bidirectional ambiguity - did low subjective well-being lead to them pursuing a job in a Western firm or did the job itself lead to low subjective well-being?  We can only know this through prospective research - measuring their well-being when they start their job and then again after several months.

Sampling bias

Although on the one hand, globalization research has shown a richer understanding of the need for more diverse samples and a more emic approach to studying local cultures, there are still problems with sampling bias.  First, researchers still often apply an etic approach to the research - as seen in the study by Becker et al. In addition, although non-Western samples are used, they often are participants who are educated, from a good socioeconomic level, and from industrialized countries.

Checking for understanding

For each of the following statements, decide whether it is true or false.  Be able to justify your position before checking your answer.

1. In a natural experiment, there is no independent variable.

False. There is an independent variable, but it is naturally occurring - that is, it is not manipulated by the researcher.

2. One of the potential limitations of correlational studies is bidirectional ambiguity.

True.  However, not all correlational studies suffer from bidirectional ambiguity. It is important to try to state what the ambiguity would be. For example, did low subjective well-being lead to them pursuing a job in a Western firm or did the job itself lead to low subjective well-being? 

3. One way to control for bidirectional ambiguity is to carry out prospective research.

True.  When you know that one's subjective well-being was low before taking a job, you know that it was not the job that caused the behaviour.  The ambiguity is resolved, even though the study is still correlational.

4. In modern psychological research, most research on culture uses an emic approach.

False.  Emic research is not the norm.  There are several reasons for this.  One important reason is that emic research requires that psychologists immerse themselves in the other culture.  This requires a lot of time and money.

5. Natural experiments have low internal validity.

True.  As the IV is naturally occurring, the researcher is not able to control for extraneous variables.

6. One of the limitations of questionnaires is that there may be demand characteristics.

True.  Especially when asking people about their personal habits or mental health, they may be more positive with the hope of avoiding social judgment.

7.  One way to improve the credibility of questionnaires is to carry out method triangulation - for example, a naturalistic observation or a one-on-one interview.

True.  When the researcher ends up getting the same results by a different research method, we say that the results are credible.

8. Using questionnaires to measure one's level of subjective well-being may be a problem of construct validity.

True.  There is a question as to whether the questionnaire is a valid measure of "well-being."

9. A study found that Czechs, who have high uncertainty avoidance, were actually more likely to report positive well-being when working in American firms in the Czech Republic.  This study may suffer from low ecological validity.

False.  The problem with this study is the ecological fallacy - assuming that because the Czech culture has the trend of being high in uncertainty avoidance (low risk-takers), that any Czech who participates would share that trait.  It could very well be that Czechs who have low uncertainty avoidance are the type of Czech that would apply for a job with an American company in Prague.

10. Correlational studies are problematic because they cannot be replicated to establish reliability.

False.  As long as the data is preserved, other researchers can check the data.  Since the questionnaires are standardized, they can be administered to a larger sample of the sample population.

You have been given the IB question:  Evaluate the use of one or more research methods in the study of globalization. You have just written a paragraph on Becker's study of globalization and eating disorders. Write the next paragraph in which you evaluate the research method used in this study.  Be sure to include both strengths and limitations.

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Continue to  Globalization: Final assessment