Terms/theories: data triangulation, conceptual vs. practical definitions of abnormality, Jahoda's(1958) optimal health model; Rosenhan and Seligman's criteria for abnormal behaviour.

Research: Cultural differences in definitions: Luhrmann (2015), Bolton (2002), Li-Repac (1980); using symptoms to define abnormality: Rosenhan (1973); Parker et al (2001)  

Critical thinking: the difficulties of measuring dysfunction and distress; the cultural differences in determining abnormality, ethical considerations in labelling, change over time (e.g. homosexuality), problems with using symptom-based classification systems; the importance of data triangulation, the etic and ethnocentric nature of Jahoda's model.

Different command terms: No other command term can be used other than discuss.

Terms/theories: Etic/emic, DSM vs ICD (or CCMD), reliability, sick role bias, clinical interview, the reliability of diagnosis

Research: Using an etic vs emic approach: Parker et al (2001),  Bolton (2002) Problems with reliability: Cooper (1972); Lipton and Simon (1985); Lobbestael (2011)

Critical thinking: advantages and disadvantages of using a classification system; problems with an etic approach to diagnosis; lack of reliability of diagnosis in spite of the use of classification systems; may be considered an oversimplification, reducing the continuum of human behaviour to labels; the concept of mental illness is "medicalized"; a potential for over-diagnosis, in which people are labelled as having a disorder based on a new addition to the guide;  decisions are made in the creation of the guide that reflect current political and health care realities.

Different command terms: Evaluate, contrast

Terms/theories: You should know one or more of the following clinical biases: Anchoring bias, confirmation bias, illusory correlation; cultural bias

Research: Anchoring bias: Friedlander & Stockman (1983), Temerlin (1970); confirmation bias: Mendel (2011), Temerlin (1970), Illusory correlation: Swami (2012), Johnstone (1989); cultural bias: Li-Repac (1980), Luhrmann (2015)  

Critical thinking: The role of system 1 thinking, implications of bias on the validity of diagnosis, is there a "grain of truth" to class and gender differences, low ecological validity of experiments done to test biases.

Different command terms: Evaluate research.

Terms/theories: Reliability, validity, reactivity, sick-role bias, comorbidity

Research: Reliability: Cooper (1972); Lipton and Simon (1985); Lobbestael (2011) Validity: Li-Repac (1980), Rosenhan (1973), Mitchell et al (2009); Luhrmann (2015) 

Critical thinking: Implications of low reliability; obstacles to effective diagnosis: Blood and urine testing cannot currently be used to diagnosis psychological disorders; disorders are “clusters of symptoms.” These symptoms are assumed to be related to one another, even though this may not be the case; many symptoms are difficult to measure. For example, a decrease in concentration, feelings of helplessness or hearing voices; Psychiatrists are heavily dependent on self-reported data and this is known to result in some bias; individuals may suffer from two or more psychological disorders simultaneously.

Different command terms: Evaluate research. Please note, the IB has indicated that the terms "validity and reliability" may not be separated.  You may be asked a question that asks for both - or you will get an "and/or" question, in which you may choose. 

Terms/theories: Ethical considerations include: informed consent, anonymity, right to withdraw, deception, undue stress or harm, and debriefing.

Research: Any research could be used to discuss ethical considerations. Deception: Rosenhan (1973), Swami (2012); the importance of anonymity: Swami (2012), Loebbestael, Leurgans and Arntz (2011); informed consent: Rosenhan (1973); undue stress or harm: Lipton and Simon (1985)

Critical thinking: Why is deception used; the concerns about using real patients vs. only scenarios, asking professionals to take part in tests of reliability, cost-benefit analysis when making ethical considerations.

Different command terms: This question may only be asked as a "discuss" question.

Terms/theories: research methods = interviews, observations, experiments, correlational studies, and case studies.

Research: Any research could be used. Experiments: Swami (2012), Li-Repac (1980)  ; naturalistic observation: Rosenhan (1973); questionnaires:  Parker et al (2001); interviews: Johnstone (1989);  Luhrmann (2015)  Case study:  Bolton (2002) 

Critical thinking: Strengths and limitations of research methods.  Problems of operationalization.  The ability to draw conclusions about cause and effect.

Different command terms: Evaluate, contrast

Terms/theories: Stigmatization, labeling, empowerment

Research: Labelling theory: Langer & Abelson (1974); Gove and Fain (1973); Doherty (1975); Warner et al (1989); Crisp et al (2000)

Critical thinking: There are both potential positive and negative consequences to diagnosis. A strong essay would look at both sides of the issue. It is also difficult to measure the effect of diagnosis as there are both short-term and long-term effects. An initial diagnosis may lead to feelings of marginalization and shame, but in the long-term leads to recovery, reintegration into the community, and empowerment.

Different command terms: This question may only be asked as a "discuss" question