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The extent of extent

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  • Psychology textbook/
  • 11. External assessment/
  • Command Terms/
  • The extent of extent
Some of the most common essay questions are those that start with the command term “to what extent”. According to the IB curriculum guide, "to what extent" means to “Consider the merits or otherwise of an argument or concept.” For my students and me, this language is pretty vague. So, instead, I recommend that they present a counter-argument and explain why the theory or argument being discussed is stronger or weaker than the counter-argument. The focus of the response is on evaluating the strengths and limitations of an argument compared to other arguments. This is the most difficult of the command terms. However, it is a command term that can only be applied to a limited number of the learning objectives.

Decoding the question

First, it is important to learn how to decode questions. Here are a few of the more tricky discuss questions in the curriculum:

  • To what extent does genetic inheritance influence behaviour?
  • To what extent do sociocultural factors influence abnormal behaviour?
  • To what extent does deprivation or trauma in childhood affect development?
  • To what extent do biological factors influence the development of obesity?
  • To what extent do cognitive factors influence human relationships?

In order to get top marks for a "to what extent" question, you should

  • Take a position in the introduction.
  • Provide empirical evidence to support your position.
  • Discuss the strengths of the argument - do not simply evaluate the research!
  • Discuss the limitations of the argument - and potentially show how other arguments or theories may address the short-comings of your argument.

Defining extent

Let’s start with the first question above: To what extent does genetic inheritance influence behaviour? It is not important to say that genetic inheritance influences behaviour "to a great extent" or "to a lesser extent;" however, it is important to recognize the questions that cannot be answered by a genetic argument alone.

What do we need to do before we begin?

  • What does research say about the role of genetics in behaviour?
  • What are the strengths of the research?  What does it clearly explain?
  • What are the limitations of the argument?  What are the areas of uncertainty?

So, for example, we have evidence from both twin studies and genetic mapping that provides us correlational evidence of the role of genes in behaviour. Studies such as Bouchard and/or Caspi could be used to outline support for the genetic argument.

However, today we know more about epigenetics - that is, gene expression.  So, we know that there is an interaction between our genes and the environment which leads to gene expression. This could account for some of the statistics that we see from twin studies.  We also know the genetic explanations are not based on single genes, but on combinations of genes.  How these genes interaction - in addition to interacting with the environment - is not yet understood.

Another area of uncertainty is the question of the manifestation of a behaviour.  Even though depression may have genetic roots, there are different symptoms in different cultures and different eras of history. How does a genetic argument account for this?

Task 1

Now it’s your turn. Below are the other four questions listed above. For each question, think about what information is necessary to write your “to what extent response.” After you have done that, it is time to practice writing your ERQs!

1. To what extent do sociocultural factors influence abnormal behaviour?

What will be the focus of the argument?

For example, culture or vulnerability models could be discussed.

What are the strengths of this argument?

The strengths of this argument is that it explains different symptomology, which is something that other levels of analysis cannot really do. The argument is also more holistic, not reducing mental illness to a simple genetic root.  The argument is also less deterministic, allowing for potential solutions that can lead to improvement. Research by Brown & Harris, for example, also explains gender differences in MDD.

What are the limitations of this argument?

The sociocultural level of analysis works with correlational studies.  It does appear that sociocultural factors may be the environmental stimuli that lead to gene expression, so the sociocultural approach alone cannot account for the origin of disorders. We also do not really understand how environmental cues interact with genetic disposition. There also appear to be cognitive mediators.  The same environmental stressor does not always lead to depression, which means that cognitive mediators may not perceive the stimulus as stressful, and thus does not lead to gene expression.  Also, many of the studies that have been done are case studies, so it is difficult to draw significant generalizations based on the findings.

Task 2

2. To what extent does deprivation or trauma in childhood affect development?

What will be the focus of the argument?

The focus should be on the effects of deprivation, but also on the question of resilience.  Why do we see such significant individual differences between people who have suffered the same trauma? Also, how do we study such a controversial topic?

What are the strengths of this argument?

There are several case studies (The Romanian Orphans, the Czechoslovak twins) in which long-term research was carried out on the effects of deprivation.  There is also animal research which demonstrates the effect of neglect on brain development. Results of the research have changed how we approach institutionalization of children.

What are the limitations of this argument?

Research on resilience shows that it is not the environmental stressor alone which leads to the effects on development. The trauma and/or deprivation interact with both cognitive and biological factors.  Those who are abused, for example, but are able to maintain an external locus of control, appear to have fewer developmental problems.  In addition, there appear to be genetic factors in one's level of resilience.  Many of the studies that were done on deprivation and trauma are rather unique, making it difficult to generalize the results.  In addition, such studies cannot be replicated.  Research on humans is also retrospective in nature; we cannot know the extent of brain damage, IQ or health concerns prior to the abuse.  As all of these studies are naturalistic, there is no control over variables so it is difficult to determine the actual extent to which deprivation and trauma affect later development, but in a significant number of cases, it acts as a deterrent to healthy development.

Task 3

3. To what extent do biological factors influence the development of obesity?

What will be the focus of the argument?

Genetic arguments and the role of hormone leptin are two biological arguments for the development of obesity.  The focus of the response should be on the evidence we have for the role of these factors and the problems with using a solely biological approach to the problem of obesity.

What are the strengths of this argument?

Genetics may explain individual differences and takes the blame off of those that are obese. Twin research seems to strongly support the genetic argument. There is also a correlation between low levels of leptin and obesity.  Case studies, as well as animal experimentation, support the leptin hypothesis.

What are the limitations of this argument?

Much of the research done in the biological approach on obesity is done on animals and the results are generalized to explain human behaviour.  This is rather controversial.  The argument also does not address sociocultural factors, such as a sedentary lifestyle or perceptions of beauty and health. Biological research in humans is correlational in nature, so cause and effect cannot be established - whereas cognitive research is experimental, but lacks ecological validity, meaning that the results may not actually explain what really happens.  Genetic research tends to compare BMI and genetic similarity.  The problem with this is that BMI may not be a good indicator of obesity.

Task 4

4. To what extent do cognitive factors influence human relationships?

What will be the focus of the argument?

The focus of the response should be on cognitive factors such as self-esteem, perceived similarity and the role of language and/or communication. Although it appears that cognitive factors are mediators in determining the level of attraction, it is very difficult to isolate these factors from biological and/or sociocultural factors.

What are the strengths of this argument?

Unlike evolutionary or other biological arguments, there is experimental research to support the claims.  Cognitive factors may account for individual differences.

What are the limitations of this argument?

Studies of human relationships in experimental lab conditions are highly artificial. Also, trying to isolate a single factor to explain the complexities of human relationships is high reductionist. Even when cognitive factors play a role, there are physiological responses, which means that biological factors cannot be ruled out.  The interaction between cognitive and biological factors in attraction is not well understood.