• Syllabus

D: Medicinal chemistry

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Sub sections and their related questions

D.1 Pharmaceutical products and drug action

• 15M.3.sl.TZ2.14a.i: State the meaning of the term therapeutic window.
• 15M.3.sl.TZ2.14a.ii: Suggest why a narrow therapeutic window may be a problem.
• 15M.3.sl.TZ2.14b: State the meaning of the term side-effects.
• 13N.3.hl.TZ0.15c: Outline why some drugs can be less effective when taken orally rather than through other methods...
• 13N.3.sl.TZ0.12c: The therapeutic window is used as a measure of the safety of a drug. Define the term therapeutic...
• 12N.3.sl.TZ0.D1a: Creating a new pharmaceutical product is a long and complex process. Outline the main stages of...
• 12N.3.sl.TZ0.D1b: There are various ways to administer drugs to a patient. One of the common methods, parenteral,...
• 09N.3.sl.TZ0.D2a.i: side-effect
• 09N.3.sl.TZ0.D2a.ii: therapeutic window
• 09N.3.sl.TZ0.D2b.i: One method of injecting drugs into the body results in the drug having a very rapid effect. State...
• 09N.3.sl.TZ0.D2b.ii: List the two other methods which can be used to inject drugs into the body.
• 09N.3.sl.TZ0.D2b.iii: Identify the method of administration used to treat respiratory diseases such as asthma.
• 10M.3.sl.TZ1.D1f: Explain what is meant by the term tolerance and suggest why this is a particular problem for...
• 09M.3.sl.TZ1.D2a: State one other effect of medicines and drugs on the body.
• 09M.3.sl.TZ1.D2b.i: therapeutic window.
• 09M.3.sl.TZ1.D2b.ii: tolerance.
• 09M.3.sl.TZ1.D2c: Outline the major stages in the development of a new drug.
• 09M.3.sl.TZ2.D1: Discuss the term therapeutic window. Your answer should include its meaning, a quantitative...
• 11M.3.sl.TZ2.D1b.i: State the meaning of the term parenteral.
• 11M.3.sl.TZ2.D3a: Explain the meaning of the term therapeutic window and discuss its importance in drug...
• 12M.3.sl.TZ1.D1a: Drugs are most commonly taken orally. (a) State one advantage and one disadvantage of...
• 12M.3.sl.TZ1.D1b: List three methods, other than orally, that can be used for the administration of a drug.
• 11N.3.sl.TZ0.D1a: List two general effects of medicines and drugs on the functioning of the body.
• 17M.3.sl.TZ1.18a: Dose response curves are determined for each drug. Outline the significance of range “a”.
• 17M.3.sl.TZ2.15b.ii: Compare, giving a reason, the bioavailability of soluble aspirin with aspirin.
• 17M.3.sl.TZ2.18b: Suggest one ethical consideration faced by medical researchers when developing medications.
• 17N.3.sl.TZ0.18a: Outline the difference between the therapeutic index in animal studies and the therapeutic index...
• 17N.3.sl.TZ0.18b: State the method of drug administration that gives the maximum bioavailability.
• 18M.3.sl.TZ1.13b.i: State what is meant by the bioavailability of a drug.
• 18M.3.sl.TZ2.15: Drug testing is necessary to determine safe and effective doses. Distinguish between the lethal...

D.2 Aspirin and penicillin

• 15M.3.hl.TZ1.15a.i: The structure of aspirin is shown in table 20 of the data booklet. Suggest a suitable reagent for...
• 15M.3.hl.TZ1.15a.ii: Explain the advantage of converting aspirin into its sodium salt.
• 15M.3.hl.TZ2.21a.ii: The beta-lactam ring is highly reactive and enables penicillins to be effective antibacterials....
• 15M.3.sl.TZ1.13a: Deduce which drugs could be morphine, aspirin and codeine.   Morphine:   Aspirin:   Codeine:
• 15M.3.sl.TZ2.18a.i: Explain how penicillins work as antibacterials.
• 15M.3.sl.TZ2.18a.ii: The R group in the general structure of penicillin shown below represents a side-chain which is...
• 14M.3.hl.TZ2.15a: Describe how mild analgesics function.
• 14M.3.hl.TZ2.15b: (i)     Outline why this substance is more soluble than standard aspirin in water.   (ii)   ...
• 14M.3.sl.TZ1.11d: A normal aspirin tablet taken to relieve pain contains about 300 mg of aspirin. Certain adults...
• 14M.3.sl.TZ2.11a: Describe how mild analgesics function.
• 14M.3.sl.TZ2.11b: (i)     Outline why this substance is more soluble than standard aspirin in water.     (ii)   ...
• 14N.3.hl.TZ0.17b: Explain how penicillins work and why it is necessary to continually modify the side-chain.
• 14N.3.hl.TZ0.17c: Explain the importance of the beta-lactam ring in the action of penicillin.
• 14N.3.sl.TZ0.13a: Explain the way that mild and strong analgesics prevent pain.   Mild...
• 14N.3.sl.TZ0.16b: Explain how penicillins work and why it is necessary to continually modify the side-chain.
• 13N.3.hl.TZ0.16c.iii: Suggest how the aqueous solubility of cathine or PPA could be increased to facilitate its...
• 13M.3.sl.TZ1.D1a: Explain how mild and strong analgesics prevent pain.   Mild analgesics:       Strong...
• 13M.3.sl.TZ1.D1c: State a reason why it is dangerous to use aspirin while consuming alcohol.
• 13M.3.hl.TZ2.D3a.i: Identify the class of drugs to which this particular drug belongs.
• 13M.3.hl.TZ2.D3a.ii: Explain the high reactivity of the part of the drug that is enclosed in the circle.
• 13M.3.hl.TZ2.D3a.iii: Suggest why the drug is administered as its sodium salt.
• 13M.3.hl.TZ2.D3b.ii: Suggest one way in which the polarity of doxycycline could be substantially increased.
• 13M.3.sl.TZ2.D1a: Other than the benzene (aromatic) ring, state the name of the functional group that is common to...
• 13M.3.sl.TZ2.D1b: Describe the different ways in which aspirin and diamorphine function when they relieve or...
• 13M.3.sl.TZ2.D1c: Other than the prevention of pain and/or the reduction of fever, state one reason why aspirin is...
• 13M.3.sl.TZ2.D2d: Ethanol may exert a synergistic effect when taken with other medicines. State the meaning of the...
• 13M.3.sl.TZ2.D3a: Explain how penicillins are able to cure certain diseases caused by bacteria.
• 13M.3.sl.TZ2.D3b: Sodium piperacillin has a different side chain to the original penicillin developed by Florey and...
• 13M.3.sl.TZ2.D3c: Explain why it may be necessary to give a mixture of several different types of antibacterials...
• 12N.3.hl.TZ0.D4: The efficiency of a drug depends on the polarity of its molecule. Explain how the polarity of a...
• 12N.3.sl.TZ0.D1c: The efficiency of certain drugs is strongly dependent on the frequency and regularity of their...
• 10N.3.sl.TZ0.D4b: Discuss three methods in which the activities of humans has created an increase in the resistance...
• 09N.3.hl.TZ0.D1c: State the type of hybridization of each of the carbon atoms (I, II, and III) in the \(\beta...
• 09N.3.sl.TZ0.D1a.ii: Describe the mode of action of penicillins in treating infectious diseases.
• 09N.3.sl.TZ0.D1b.i: Identify two functional groups present in the side chain (R) of ampicillin by comparing its...
• 09N.3.sl.TZ0.D1b.ii: Explain why it is important to continue to develop semi-synthetic penicillins.
• 10M.3.hl.TZ1.D2c: The active part of penicillins is the beta-lactam ring. Determine the functional group present in...
• 10M.3.sl.TZ1.D1a: Aspirin is thought to interfere with the production of prostaglandins. Explain how this produces...
• 10M.3.sl.TZ1.D1b: Explain how morphine can prevent pain.
• 10M.3.sl.TZ1.D1c: Paracetamol (acetaminophen) is generally considered to be safe to use as an analgesic in small...
• 10M.3.sl.TZ1.D1d: State one important use for aspirin other than the relief of pain and fever.
• 10M.3.sl.TZ1.D2a: Explain how penicillins are able to act as antibacterials.
• 10M.3.sl.TZ1.D2b: Modern penicillins have a similar structure to Penicillin G but a different side-chain. State...
• 10M.3.sl.TZ2.D3: (a)     Describe how mild and strong analgesics provide pain relief. Mild analgesics: Strong...
• 09M.3.sl.TZ1.D1b: Compare how mild and strong analgesics relieve pain in the body.
• 09M.3.hl.TZ2.D2a: Aspirin is virtually insoluble in water. Use Table 20 in the Data Booklet to explain how aspirin...
• 09M.3.hl.TZ2.D4b: Describe the composition and structure of the beta-lactam ring in penicillin and explain its...
• 09M.3.sl.TZ2.D4a: With reference to the structure above, state what the letter R represents and discuss how...
• 09M.3.sl.TZ2.D4b: Describe and explain one effect of overprescription of antibacterials.
• 11M.3.sl.TZ2.D1a.ii: Explain why it is dangerous to take aspirin when ethanol has also been consumed.
• 12M.3.hl.TZ1.D2c: Identify the particular structural feature of penicillins that is responsible for their action...
• 12M.3.sl.TZ1.D3c: Describe two misuses of antibiotics that have led to some bacteria becoming resistant.
• 12M.3.hl.TZ2.D3e: Comment on the fact that many bacteria are now resistant to penicillins.
• 12M.3.sl.TZ2.D3c: Explain how penicillin works and why it is necessary to continue to develop new forms of...
• 11N.3.hl.TZ0.D5a.i: State the equation for the formation of the ionic salt of aspirin,...
• 11N.3.sl.TZ0.D4a: Identify the side-chain by drawing a circle around the side-chain in the structure of benzyl...
• 11N.3.sl.TZ0.D4b: Discuss two problems associated with the overprescription of penicillin and explain how these are...
• 16M.3.sl.TZ0.16a: Explain the importance of the beta-lactam ring in the antibiotic activity of penicillin.
• 16N.3.sl.TZ0.16a: (i) Outline what is meant by the term “ring strain”. (ii) On the diagram above, label with...
• 16N.3.sl.TZ0.16b: (i) Some antibiotic-resistant bacteria produce a beta-lactamase enzyme which destroys penicillin...
• 16N.3.sl.TZ0.18d: State why aspirin is described as a mild analgesic with reference to its site of action.
• 17M.3.sl.TZ1.19a: Suggest why aspirin is slightly soluble in water. Refer to section 37 of the data booklet.
• 17M.3.sl.TZ1.19b: Formulate an equation for the conversion of aspirin to a more water soluble derivative.
• 17M.3.sl.TZ1.19c: A student prepares aspirin from salicylic acid in the laboratory, extracts it from the reaction...
• 17M.3.sl.TZ1.19d: Organic molecules can be characterized using infrared (IR) spectroscopy. Compare and contrast...
• 17M.3.sl.TZ2.15a.iii: State two techniques which could be used to confirm the identity of aspirin.
• 17M.3.sl.TZ2.15b.i: State how aspirin can be converted to water-soluble aspirin.
• 17M.3.hl.TZ2.20a.iv: State two techniques, other than IR spectroscopy, which could be used to confirm the identity of...
• 17N.3.sl.TZ0.17a: Aspirin is a mild analgesic derived from salicylic acid found in willow bark. Describe how mild...
• 17N.3.sl.TZ0.21: Molecules of antibiotics often contain a beta-lactam ring. Explain the importance of the...
• 17N.3.hl.TZ0.22b: Describe how mild analgesics function.
• 18M.3.sl.TZ1.13a: Aspirin is often taken to reduce pain, swelling or fever. State one other use of aspirin.
• 18M.3.sl.TZ1.13b.ii: Outline how the bioavailability of aspirin may be increased.
• 18M.3.sl.TZ1.13c.i: Compare and contrast the IR spectrum of aspirin with that of salicylic acid, using section 26 of...
• 18M.3.sl.TZ1.13c.ii: Describe how penicillin combats bacterial infections.
• 18M.3.sl.TZ1.13c.iv: State how penicillins may be modified to increase their effectiveness.
• 18M.3.sl.TZ2.16a.i: Describe how penicillin combats bacterial infections.
• 18M.3.sl.TZ2.16a.ii: State how penicillins may be modified to increase their effectiveness.
• 18M.3.sl.TZ2.16b: State the type of reaction used to synthesize aspirin from salicylic acid.
• 18M.3.sl.TZ2.16c: Explain why aspirin is not stored in a hot, humid location.

D.3 Opiates

• 15M.3.hl.TZ1.15b.ii: Suggest a reagent that could be used to convert morphine into diamorphine.
• 15M.3.hl.TZ1.15c: Explain why diamorphine is a more potent drug than morphine.
• 15M.3.hl.TZ2.18b.ii: Explain why the change in functional groups makes diamorphine (heroin) more potent than morphine.
• 15M.3.sl.TZ1.13a: Deduce which drugs could be morphine, aspirin and codeine.   Morphine:   Aspirin:   Codeine:
• 15M.3.sl.TZ1.13b: Compare the structures of diamorphine (heroin) and morphine. Their structures are given in table...
• 15M.3.sl.TZ2.15a: Discuss one advantage and two disadvantages of using morphine as an...
• 15M.3.sl.TZ2.15b: The structures of morphine and diamorphine (heroin) are shown in table 20 of the data booklet....
• 14N.3.hl.TZ0.14a: Discuss two advantages and two disadvantages of the medical use of morphine and its...
• 14N.3.hl.TZ0.14b: Explain the increased potency of diamorphine (heroin) compared to morphine.
• 14N.3.sl.TZ0.13a: Explain the way that mild and strong analgesics prevent pain.   Mild...
• 14N.3.sl.TZ0.13c: Discuss two advantages and two disadvantages of the medical use of morphine and its...
• 13M.3.hl.TZ1.D3b: The structures of morphine and diamorphine (heroin) are given in Table 20 of the Data Booklet....
• 13M.3.sl.TZ1.D1a: Explain how mild and strong analgesics prevent pain.   Mild analgesics:       Strong...
• 13M.3.sl.TZ1.D1d.i: Deduce from the structures the names of two functional groups present in all three analgesics.
• 13M.3.sl.TZ1.D1d.ii: Deduce the name of one functional group present in diamorphine (heroin) but not in morphine or...
• 13M.3.sl.TZ2.D1a: Other than the benzene (aromatic) ring, state the name of the functional group that is common to...
• 13M.3.sl.TZ2.D1b: Describe the different ways in which aspirin and diamorphine function when they relieve or...
• 13M.3.sl.TZ2.D1d: Discuss one advantage and one disadvantage of taking diamorphine rather than morphine to relieve...
• 10N.3.hl.TZ0.D3a: For each of the following drugs, identify which one of these factors is involved. Increased...
• 10N.3.hl.TZ0.D3b: Explain the action of penicillin with reference to your answer in part (a).
• 09N.3.hl.TZ0.D3e: The structures of morphine and heroin are shown in Table 20 of the Data Booklet. Explain the...
• 10M.2.hl.TZ1.3e: Determine the pH of a solution formed from adding \({\text{50.0 c}}{{\text{m}}^{\text{3}}}\) of...
• 10M.3.hl.TZ1.D1f: Suggest a reagent that could be used to convert morphine into diamorphine and state the name of...
• 10M.3.sl.TZ1.D1a: Aspirin is thought to interfere with the production of prostaglandins. Explain how this produces...
• 10M.3.sl.TZ1.D1b: Explain how morphine can prevent pain.
• 10M.3.sl.TZ1.D1c: Paracetamol (acetaminophen) is generally considered to be safe to use as an analgesic in small...
• 10M.3.sl.TZ1.D1d: State one important use for aspirin other than the relief of pain and fever.
• 10M.3.hl.TZ2.D3c: Explain why heroin is a more potent drug than morphine.
• 10M.3.sl.TZ2.D1: State the differences between the structures of morphine and diamorphine (heroin). State the...
• 10M.3.sl.TZ2.D3: (a)     Describe how mild and strong analgesics provide pain relief. Mild analgesics: Strong...
• 09M.3.hl.TZ1.D1c.iv: Explain the increased potency of heroin (diamorphine) compared to morphine.
• 09M.3.sl.TZ1.D1b: Compare how mild and strong analgesics relieve pain in the body.
• 09M.3.sl.TZ1.D1c.iii: State the name of the functional group found in heroin but not in morphine.
• 09M.3.sl.TZ1.D1d: State one advantage and one disadvantage of using morphine as a strong analgesic.
• 09M.3.sl.TZ2.D3a.i: State the oxidation and reduction half-equations that occur in the breathalyser when ethanol is...
• 11M.3.hl.TZ2.D1b: Diamorphine (heroin) is a more effective painkiller than morphine. The structures of morphine and...
• 11M.3.sl.TZ2.D1b.ii: Explain how a strong analgesic such as morphine prevents pain.
• 11M.3.sl.TZ2.D1b.iii: The structures of morphine and diamorphine (heroin) are shown in Table 20 of the Data Booklet....
• 16M.3.sl.TZ0.17a: Diamorphine (heroin) can be synthesized from morphine. Identify the reagent necessary for this...
• 16M.3.sl.TZ0.17b: The reaction can be monitored by infrared spectroscopy. Using section 26 of the data booklet,...
• 16M.3.sl.TZ0.17c: Discuss how the differences in structure between morphine and diamorphine affect their absorption...
• 16N.3.sl.TZ0.20b: Methadone is sometimes used to help reduce withdrawal symptoms in the treatment of heroin...
• 17M.3.sl.TZ1.18b.i: Suggest the type of reaction used to convert morphine to codeine.
• 17M.3.sl.TZ1.18b.ii: State and explain the action of opiates as painkillers.
• 17M.3.sl.TZ2.16a: Explain why diamorphine passes more readily than morphine through the blood-brain barrier.
• 17M.3.sl.TZ2.16b: Suggest a reagent used to prepare diamorphine from morphine.
• 17M.3.sl.TZ2.16c: Suggest one reason why codeine is available without prescription in some countries whilst...
• 17N.3.sl.TZ0.17b.i: The strong analgesics morphine and codeine are opiates. Outline how codeine can be synthesized...
• 17N.3.sl.TZ0.17b.ii: Explain why opiates are addictive.
• 18M.3.sl.TZ1.13d.i: Morphine and codeine are strong analgesics. Outline how strong analgesics function.
• 18M.3.sl.TZ1.13d.ii: Suggest one reason why codeine is more widely used than morphine as an analgesic.
• 18M.3.sl.TZ2.17: Morphine and diamorphine (heroin) are both opioids. Explain why diamorphine is more potent than...

D.4 pH regulation of the stomach

• 15M.1.hl.TZ1.29: Which mixture will form a buffer in aqueous solution? A.    ...
• 15M.1.hl.TZ2.27: The \({\text{p}}{K_{\text{a}}}\) of ethanoic acid is 4.8 at 298 K. Which combination will produce...
• 15M.2.hl.TZ1.8d.iii: Determine the pH of the solution resulting when \({\text{100 c}}{{\text{m}}^{\text{3}}}\) of...
• 15M.2.hl.TZ2.4c: Calculate the concentration, in \({\text{mol}}\,{\text{d}}{{\text{m}}^{ - 3}}\), of sodium...
• 14M.2.hl.TZ1.7c.iii: Determine the pH of the buffer solution at 298 K.
• 14M.3.sl.TZ1.12a: State the equations for the reactions of magnesium hydroxide, aluminium hydroxide and calcium...
• 14M.3.sl.TZ1.12b: (i)     one teaspoon (\({\text{5.00 c}}{{\text{m}}^{\text{3}}}\)) of Maalox® Extra...
• 14M.3.sl.TZ2.10a: The pH of gastric juice is 1.5. Identify the compound responsible for its acidity and state...
• 14M.3.sl.TZ2.10b: Antacid tablets are often taken for an upset stomach. Identify the reaction involved in this...
• 14M.3.sl.TZ2.10c: One active ingredient in a commercial brand of antacid tablets is a complex of aluminium...
• 14N.1.hl.TZ0.28: A buffer solution is formed by mixing equal volumes of...
• 13N.3.sl.TZ0.13a: State an equation for the reactions that occur in the stomach for both substances with...
• 13N.3.sl.TZ0.13b: A typical antacid tablet has a mass of about 1 g. Determine which of the two antacids will...
• 13N.3.sl.TZ0.13c: Potassium hydroxide also neutralizes hydrochloric acid. Suggest why it is not used as an antacid.
• 12N.2.hl.TZ0.3b: Determine the pH of a buffer solution, correct to two decimal places, showing your working,...
• 10N.1.hl.TZ0.26: Which mixtures act as buffer solutions? I.    ...
• 10N.3.sl.TZ0.D1a: State the name of the acid found in the gastric juices of the stomach.
• 10N.3.sl.TZ0.D1b: Two examples of antacids are aluminium hydroxide and calcium carbonate. State the equations to...
• 10M.2.hl.TZ1.3f: (if acid added)...
• 10M.3.sl.TZ1.D3a: (i)     Give the equations for the reactions of sodium hydrogencarbonate and magnesium hydroxide...
• 10M.2.hl.TZ2.7b: (i)     Deduce the acid and conjugate base ions that make up the phosphate buffer and state the...
• 09M.3.sl.TZ2.D2a: State an equation for the reaction of stomach acid with this antacid.
• 09M.3.sl.TZ2.D2b: Calcium carbonate can also neutralize stomach acid. The same amounts (in moles) of sodium...
• 11M.3.sl.TZ1.D2a: State an equation to represent a neutralization reaction with one of the above antacids.
• 11M.3.sl.TZ1.D2b: State and explain whether 0.1 mol of magnesium hydroxide is more effective or less effective than...
• 11M.3.sl.TZ1.D2c: Suggest why compounds such as sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide cannot be used as an antacid.
• 12M.3.hl.TZ2.D3c: Describe what happens to bacteria when they come into contact with penicillin.
• 12M.3.hl.TZ2.D3d: (i)     Identify the \(\beta \)-lactam ring by drawing a circle around it. (ii)     Explain why...
• 12M.3.sl.TZ2.D1a: State the separate equations for the reactions of aluminium hydroxide and magnesium carbonate...
• 12M.3.sl.TZ2.D1b: Determine which of the two components of the tablet will neutralize the most acid.
• 12M.3.sl.TZ2.D1d: On the leaflet which comes with the tablets it states that one of the side effects of the tablets...
• 16M.3.sl.TZ0.18a: Formulate the equation for the neutralization of stomach acid with magnesium hydroxide.
• 16M.3.sl.TZ0.18b: Determine the mass of HCl, in g, that can be neutralized by the standard adult dose of 1.00g...
• 16M.3.sl.TZ0.18c: Compare and contrast the use of omeprazole (Prilosec) and magnesium hydroxide.
• 16N.3.sl.TZ0.19a: Ranitidine (Zantac) is a drug that inhibits stomach acid production. Outline why the development...
• 16N.3.sl.TZ0.19b: Two other drugs, omeprazole (Prilosec) and esomeprazole (Nexium), directly prevent the release of...
• 16N.3.sl.TZ0.19c: A different approach to treating excess stomach acid is to neutralize it with antacids. Formulate...
• 17M.3.sl.TZ1.20a: Calculate the pH of the buffer from the following data and section 1 of the data...
• 17M.3.sl.TZ1.20b: Explain the effect of a large amount of aspirin on the pH of blood.
• 17M.3.sl.TZ2.17a: Two drugs are ranitidine (Zantac) and omeprazole (Prilosec). Outline how they function to reduce...
• 17M.3.sl.TZ2.17b: 0.500 g of solid anhydrous sodium carbonate, Na2CO3(s), is dissolved in 75.0 cm3 of 0.100...
• 17M.3.sl.TZ2.18a.i: Compare and contrast the structures of oseltamivir and zanamivir, stating the names of functional...
• 17M.3.sl.TZ2.18a.ii: Deduce the wavenumber of one absorbance seen in the IR spectrum of only one of the compounds,...
• 17M.3.hl.TZ2.22a: Outline how ranitidine (Zantac) functions to reduce stomach acidity.
• 17N.3.sl.TZ0.20a: Explain how ranitidine (Zantac) reduces stomach acid production.
• 17N.3.sl.TZ0.20b: The pH is maintained in different fluids in the body by the use of buffers. Calculate the pH of...
• 18M.3.sl.TZ1.14a.i: An antacid tablet contains 680 mg of calcium carbonate, CaCO3, and 80 mg of magnesium carbonate,...
• 18M.3.sl.TZ1.14a.ii: Determine the amount, in mol, of hydrochloric acid neutralized by one antacid tablet.
• 18M.3.sl.TZ1.14b: Explain how omeprazole (Prilosec) reduces stomach acidity.
• 18M.3.sl.TZ2.18a: Formulate a chemical equation for the neutralization of stomach acid with calcium carbonate.
• 18M.3.sl.TZ2.18b: Calculate the amount, in mol, of stomach acid neutralized by an antacid tablet containing 0.750 g...
• 18M.3.sl.TZ2.18c: Explain how omeprazole (Prilosec) regulates pH in the stomach.

D.5 Anti-viral medications

• 15M.3.sl.TZ1.12b: Acyclovir is an antiviral drug used to treat herpes infections. Outline two ways in which...
• 15M.3.sl.TZ1.12c: Discuss two difficulties associated with the development of drugs for the effective treatment of...
• 15M.3.sl.TZ2.18b: Describe two ways in which antiviral drugs work.
• 14N.3.hl.TZ0.18a: State two ways in which viruses are different from bacteria.
• 14N.3.hl.TZ0.18b: Describe two ways in which antiviral drugs work.
• 14N.3.hl.TZ0.18c: Discuss three of the difficulties associated with solving the AIDS problem.
• 14N.3.sl.TZ0.17a: State two ways in which viruses are different from bacteria.
• 14N.3.sl.TZ0.17b: Describe two ways in which antiviral drugs work.
• 13N.3.hl.TZ0.18: Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), a disease caused by the HIV virus, has resulted in...
• 13N.3.sl.TZ0.14: Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), a disease caused by the HIV virus, has resulted in...
• 10N.3.sl.TZ0.D3: AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome) has resulted in millions of deaths worldwide since it...
• 10N.3.sl.TZ0.D4a: State one difference between viruses and bacteria.
• 10M.3.sl.TZ2.D2: (a)     Outline two differences between bacteria and viruses. (b)     Antiviral drugs are used...
• 09M.3.sl.TZ2.D5: Describe and explain difficulties associated with solving the AIDS problem.
• 11M.3.sl.TZ1.D3a: State two differences in structure between viruses and bacteria.
• 11M.3.sl.TZ1.D3b: Describe two ways in which antiviral drugs work.
• 11M.3.sl.TZ1.D3c: Discuss two difficulties associated with the development of drugs for the effective treatment of...
• 12M.3.sl.TZ1.D3a: (i)     State the name of one disease caused by each. Bacteria: Viruses: (ii)     Discuss the...
• 12M.3.sl.TZ1.D3d: It is much more difficult to produce effective antiviral drugs than drugs that kill bacteria....
• 16N.3.sl.TZ0.16b: (i) Some antibiotic-resistant bacteria produce a beta-lactamase enzyme which destroys penicillin...
• 16N.3.sl.TZ0.17a: Zanamivir must be taken by inhalation, not orally. Deduce what this suggests about the...
• 17M.3.sl.TZ1.21a: Outline how oseltamivir (Tamiflu®) works.
• 17N.3.sl.TZ0.19a: State the names of two functional groups that both compounds contain, using section 37 of the...
• 17N.3.sl.TZ0.19b: Explain how oseltamivir and zanamivir can stop the spread of the flu virus in the body.
• 18M.3.sl.TZ1.15a: Oseltamivir (Tamiflu) and zanamivir (Relenza) are used against flu viruses. Explain how these...
• 18M.3.sl.TZ2.19a: Identify the names of two functional groups present in zanamivir using section 37 of the data...
• 18M.3.sl.TZ2.19b: Distinguish between bacteria and viruses.

D.6 Environmental impact of some medications

• 16M.3.sl.TZ0.16b: Identify two dangers of the overuse of antibiotics.
• 16M.3.sl.TZ0.19a: Identify examples of two types of medical radioactive waste and how each must be treated for...
• 16M.3.sl.TZ0.19b: Outline an ethical implication of using nuclear treatments in medicine.
• 16M.3.hl.TZ0.25e: Outline an ethical implication of using nuclear treatments in medicine.
• 16N.3.sl.TZ0.17c: The synthesis of oseltamivir is dependent on a supply of the precursor shikimic acid, which is...
• 16N.3.hl.TZ0.28d: Outline the nature of the radioactive waste that is generated by the use of technetium-99m in...
• 17M.3.sl.TZ1.19e: The pharmaceutical industry is one of the largest producers of waste solvents. State a green...
• 17M.3.sl.TZ1.21b: Oseltamivir was commercially produced from shikimic acid, a precursor which is a metabolite in...
• 17M.3.sl.TZ1.21c: Suggest why the administration of antibiotics to humans and animals can affect the environment.
• 17M.3.sl.TZ2.19a: Suggest one problem associated with chlorinated organic solvents as chemical waste.
• 17M.3.sl.TZ2.19b: Suggest how the principles of green chemistry can be used to solve the environmental problems...
• 17N.3.sl.TZ0.16: Radioisotopes are used to diagnose and treat various diseases. Explain the low environmental...
• 17N.3.hl.TZ0.21c: Explain the low environmental impact of most medical nuclear waste.
• 18M.3.sl.TZ1.13c.iii: Outline two consequences of prescribing antibiotics such as penicillin unnecessarily.
• 18M.3.sl.TZ1.15b: Shikimic acid, the precursor for oseltamivir (Tamiflu), was originally extracted from star anise,...
• 18M.3.sl.TZ2.20: Drug synthesis often involves solvents. Identify a common hazardous solvent and a Green solvent...

D.7 Taxol—a chiral auxiliary case study (HL only)

• 15M.3.hl.TZ2.21b.i: Cytovaricin is an antibiotic that is produced using a chiral auxiliary. Suggest why it may be...
• 15M.3.hl.TZ2.21b.ii: Describe how a chiral auxiliary is involved in the synthesis of a drug.
• 14M.3.hl.TZ1.14b: Thalidomide is currently used to treat several different diseases including certain types of...
• 13N.3.hl.TZ0.16c.i: Outline how PPA and not cathine could be synthesized from the same non-chiral starting materials....
• 13N.3.hl.TZ0.16c.ii: Explain why this is the generally preferred method for the synthesis of optically active drugs.
• 09N.3.hl.TZ0.D3d: Amphetamine exists as optical isomers. Describe how chiral auxiliaries can be used to synthesize...
• 10M.3.hl.TZ1.D3a: Identify the two chiral carbon atoms in the structure above with an asterisk (*).
• 10M.3.hl.TZ1.D3b: Explain, with an example, the importance of chirality in drug action.
• 10M.3.hl.TZ1.D3c: Describe the use of chiral auxiliaries to synthesize the desired enantiomer of a drug.
• 11N.3.hl.TZ0.D5b: Chiral auxiliaries are used in drug design. Describe how a chiral auxiliary works.
• 16N.3.hl.TZ0.26c: Omeprazole exists as a racemic mixture whereas esomeprazole is a single enantiomer. Outline how,...
• 17M.3.hl.TZ1.28b: A mixture of enantiomers shows optical rotation. Suggest a conclusion you can draw from this data.
• 17M.3.hl.TZ2.25: Taxol is produced using a chiral auxiliary. Describe how the chiral auxiliary functions...
• 17N.3.hl.TZ0.23b: Explain the role of the chiral auxiliary in the synthesis of Taxol.
• 18M.3.hl.TZ1.16e: Many drugs are chiral. Explain how a polarimeter can be used to determine the relative proportion...
• 18M.3.hl.TZ2.25: Taxol was originally obtained from the bark of the Pacific yew tree. Outline how Green Chemistry...

D.8 Nuclear medicine (HL only)

• 10M.2.sl.TZ1.4d: The isotopes of some elements are radioactive. State a radioisotope used in medicine.
• 16M.3.hl.TZ0.25b: Lead-212 is a radioisotope that is used in the treatment of cancer. It is produced from another...
• 16M.3.hl.TZ0.25c: Identify one advantage of using Targeted Alpha Therapy (TAT) and one form of cancer commonly...
• 16M.3.hl.TZ0.25d: Technetium-99m, used for radioimaging scans, has a half-life of 6.01 hours. Calculate the mass of...
• 16N.3.hl.TZ0.28a: Deduce equations for the following nuclear reactions: (i) Molybdenum-98 absorbs a neutron. (ii)...
• 16N.3.hl.TZ0.28b: Molybdenum-99 has a half-life of 66 hours, while technetium-99m has a half-life of 6 hours....
• 16N.3.hl.TZ0.28c: Outline two reasons, other than its half-life, why technetium-99m is so useful in medical diagnosis.
• 17M.3.hl.TZ1.29a: Yttrium-90 is used in treating certain cancers. Formulate a nuclear equation for the beta decay...
• 17M.3.hl.TZ1.29b: Lutetium-177 is a common isotope used for internal radiation therapy. Suggest why lutetium-177...
• 17M.3.hl.TZ1.29c.i: Calculate the rate constant, \(\lambda \), in day−1, for the decay of iodine-131 using section 1...
• 17M.3.hl.TZ1.29c.ii: Calculate the time, in days, for 90% of the sample to decay.
• 17M.3.hl.TZ2.26a.i: Explain why alpha-radiation is particularly suitable for this treatment.
• 17M.3.hl.TZ2.26a.ii: Outline how the alpha-radiation in TAT is directed to cancer cells.
• 17M.3.hl.TZ2.26b.i: Identify the type of radiation emitted by these two radioisotopes.
• 17M.3.hl.TZ2.26b.ii: State an equation for the one-step decay of yttrium-90.
• 17M.3.hl.TZ2.26b.iii: The half-life of lutetium-177 is 6.75 days. Calculate the percentage remaining after 27 days.
• 17N.3.hl.TZ0.21a: State a nuclear equation to show the decay of lutetium-177.
• 17N.3.hl.TZ0.21b: The half-life of lutetium-177 is 6.73 days. Determine the percentage of a sample of lutetium-177...
• 18M.3.hl.TZ1.19a: Describe how ionizing radiation destroys cancer cells.
• 18M.3.hl.TZ1.19b: Outline how Targeted Alpha Therapy (TAT) is used for treating cancers that have spread throughout...
• 18M.3.hl.TZ2.26a: Phosphorous-32 undergoes beta decay. Formulate a balanced nuclear equation for this process.
• 18M.3.hl.TZ2.26b: The half-life of phosphorus-32 is 14.3 days. Calculate the mass, in g, of 32P remaining after...
• 18M.3.hl.TZ2.26c: Explain the targeted alpha therapy (TAT) technique and why it is useful.

D.9 Drug detection and analysis (HL only)

• 15M.3.hl.TZ2.19a.i: The breathalyser, one of the earliest tests, uses the reaction between ethanol and acidified...
• 15M.3.hl.TZ2.19a.ii: Outline why the colour changes from orange to green.
• 15M.3.hl.TZ2.19b: Explain how the ethanol concentration in the breath can be measured by an intoximeter using...
• 13N.3.hl.TZ0.14a.i: Use Table 17 of the Data Booklet to identify the wavenumber range used in the determination.
• 13N.3.hl.TZ0.14a.ii: State why the absorption in the range 3200 to 3600 \({\text{c}}{{\text{m}}^{ - 1}}\) is not used.
• 13N.3.hl.TZ0.14b: The concentration of ethanol is determined by passing IR radiation through a breath sample....
• 13N.3.hl.TZ0.15a.i: Identify the molecule which is most similar to Antifebrin in terms of size and structure.
• 13N.3.hl.TZ0.15a.ii: State the names of the two functional groups that both molecules have in common.
• 13M.3.sl.TZ1.D2b.ii: Describe the colour change observed during its reaction with ethanol.
• 13M.3.sl.TZ1.D2b.iv: Deduce the full balanced chemical equation for the redox reaction of ethanol with acidified...
• 13M.3.sl.TZ1.D2b.v: State the name of the organic product formed.
• 13M.3.sl.TZ1.D2c: An intoximeter is used to determine an accurate value for the concentration of ethanol in the...
• 13M.3.sl.TZ2.D2b.i: Describe the colour change observed when the dichromate ion reacts with the ethanol.
• 13M.3.sl.TZ2.D2b.ii: State the name of the organic product formed during the reaction.
• 13M.3.sl.TZ2.D2c: In order to quantify exactly how much ethanol is present in the blood, a person may be required...
• 09M.3.sl.TZ2.D3a.ii: Describe the colour change that occurs to the acidified dichromate(VI) if ethanol is present in...
• 09M.3.sl.TZ2.D3b: Police use the intoximeter, an infrared spectrophotometer to confirm a roadside breathalyser...
• 12M.3.hl.TZ1.D1a: Identify the region of the electromagnetic spectrum used to detect the presence of ethanol.
• 16M.3.hl.TZ0.23c: Using sections 26 and 37 of the data booklet, deduce, giving two reasons, which spectrum is that...
• 16N.3.hl.TZ0.29a: Suggest what may have led to these changes in acceptable concentrations.
• 16N.3.hl.TZ0.29b: One class of performance-enhancing drugs is the anabolic steroids. Detection of these drugs in...
• 17M.3.hl.TZ1.25d: Some mild analgesics contain a solid mixture of acidic aspirin and a non-acidic organic chemical...
• 17M.3.hl.TZ1.29d: A breathalyser measures the blood alcohol content from a breath sample. Formulate half-equations...
• 17N.3.hl.TZ0.22a.i: Both spectra show a peak at wavenumber 1700 cm–1. Identify the bond responsible for this peak.
• 17N.3.hl.TZ0.22a.ii: Deduce which spectrum belongs to paracetamol, giving two reasons for your choice. Use section 26...
• 17N.3.hl.TZ0.27: Ethanol slows down the reaction time of a driver leading to traffic accidents. Explain how the...
• 18M.3.hl.TZ1.20a: Hexane and propanone have vapour pressures of 17 kPa and 24 kPa respectively at 20 °C. Calculate...
• 18M.3.hl.TZ1.20b: Explain how hexane and propanone may be separated by fractional distillation.
• 18M.3.hl.TZ2.27a: Fuel cells use an electrochemical process to determine the concentration of ethanol. Formulate...
• 18M.3.hl.TZ2.27b: Predict the chemical shifts and integration for each signal in the 1H NMR spectrum for ethanol...