IB Docs (2) Team
4. Brezhnev (1964 - 1982) ATL
Brezhnev's years as President of the USSR are remembered as a period when the Soviet Union emerged as a major nuclear player in the Cold War; however, it was also a period which saw the reversal of Khrushchev's polices and stagnation of the economy, repression in the arts and rampant corruption.
1. What was Brezhnev's approach to ruling the Soviet Union?
Starter:
Watch the first six minutes of this video (Secrets of War. The Cold War 10, Brezhnev's Kremlin)
- What was Brezhnev's attitude towards many of Khrushchev's reforms?
- What did he mean by 'a quiet life' for the Soviet people?
- What was his attitude towards international relations?
As you saw in the video above, Brezhnev's main aim was to bring about stability in Soviet politics. He believed that the staff and officials, the cadres, in state organisations should be permanent appointments; this became known as 'the stability of the cadres'. To achieve this, he appointed his own supporters, such as Yuri Andropov, head of the KGB, Marshal Andrei Grechko, the defence minister, and the foreign minister, Andrei Gromykyo, to leading positions in the government. There were very few reshuffles at the top levels which meant that younger men who might have brought more ability or dynamism to the system, were kept out. The whole system was reinforced by the Nomenklatura system; all appointments were made from a list of reliable Party personnel which the authorities used to make their appointments. Once promotion within the Party was gained, loyalty of these personnel was further assured by access to privileges reserved for Party members who had reached a particular level: dachas, better medical facilities and access to special well-stocked shops.
There were also clear reversals of Khrushchev's policies:
- Although Brezhnev did not actually rehabilitate Stalin, there was less mention of his crimes, and the process of de-Stalinisation slowed down.
- In 1966 Brezhnev took the former Stalinist title of General Secretary of the Party (rather than First Secretary) while the Presidium reverted to its former name, Politburo.
- Measures of decentralisation came to an end; the powers extended to the regions were now restored to Moscow which led to many new government ministries
In essence Brezhnev was content to manage the system that Stalin had set up. Like Khrushchev he also wanted to increase consumer goods but was far less ambitious in this area. Indeed the increased military spending that took place as he aimed to reach parity with the US in nuclear firepower limited the economic progress that could take place (military spending went from around 11 per cent of GDP in 1964 to 13 per cent in 1970).
Brezhnev argued that communism would take longer than Khrushchev had promised and he proposed an interim stage of 'developed socialism' which would be based on new technological and scientific advances and would increase national prosperity and improve living standards.
2. Why was this an era of stagnation in the Soviet economy?
Starter:
What does this table show about Soviet industrial production?
Hint:
Consider not only increase in production but rates of increase
Levels of production in heavy industry, (Years of Russia, the USSR and collapse of Soviet communism, Evans and Jenkins, pg 436)
At the beginning of Brezhnev's rule, there were some attempts at industrial reform. The main person responsible for these was Kosygin. As Prime Minister, he tried to make the economy more efficient and to encourage the production of consumer goods; in 1965 he also brought back in Khrushchev's plans to give factory managers more power over decision making. However, as under Khrushchev, any attempt to reduce the power of Gosplan was resisted by many of Kosygin's colleagues. Brezhnev also failed to support his ideas and from the beginning of the 1970s the USSR continued with Five-Year Plans.
Task One
ATL: Thinking skills
Research how agriculture and industry developed under Brezhnev
Consider:
- Successes - and factors affecting success
- Failures - and factors explaining failures
- Impact of economic development on the environment
- The role of the Black Market in the economy
You may find these sites useful in your research:
Task Two
ATL: Thinking skills
Look at this cartoon by Steve Greenberg.
What is the message of this cartoon?
As you will have seen form your research in Task One above, the Soviet economy achieved successes in both agriculture and industry, but overall economic growth rates declined to a level that became critical in the 1980s.
Task Three
ATL: Thinking and communication skills
In pairs, consider the different reasons for economic stagnation below. You may have found other factors in your research. Discuss which factors you consider to be most important and which least important. Share your thoughts with another pair and see if you can reach agreement on the most important factors.
2. As a follow up to your discussion above, discuss whether stagnation was caused by:
- political factors
- economic problems
- the legacy of the Stalinist era
- ideological obstacles
4. What social policies took place under Brezhnev?
'Six Soviet Paradoxes'
1. There's no unemployment, but nobody works. 2. No-one works, but productivity goes up. 3. Productivity goes up, but there is nothing in the stores. 4. There's nothing in the stores, but at home there is everything. 5. At home there's everything but no-one is satisfied. 6. No-one is satisfied, but everybody votes yes.
Starter: What do these 'paradoxes' mean about life in the Soviet Union?
Task One
ATL: Thinking skills
Watch this video from where it starts at 3 minutes 30 seconds to 18 minutes.
What can you learn about life in the 1970s in the Soviet Union and the satellite states? What were the positives and what were the negatives?
There were some positives regarding standards of living under Brezhnev. Unemployment was almost eliminated and there was a full programme of social security. The increasing amount of accommodation meant that millions were able to move form communal apartments to single-family flats. The government also provided healthcare and pensions; indeed spending on health and pensions grew by between four and five per cent a year under Brezhnev.
The government also provided healthcare and pensions; indeed spending on health and pensions grew by between four and five per cent a year under Brezhnev. The state subsidised key foodstuffs as well as clothing, electricity, gas and coal as well as rents and public transport. From 1970 subsidies extended to holidays.
Under Brezhnev's rule, the numbers of families owning electrical goods such as refrigerators and televisions increased significantly - from 32% to 86% and 51% to 86% respectively in the period 1970 - 1980.
This improvement of life for Soviet citizens was part of Brezhnev's 'social contract'; this meant a tacit bargain between the government and the Soviet people. In return for a rising standard of living and greater social benefits, the Soviet people were expected to conform to the system. It could be argued that this policy was successful as the period 1964 to 1985 saw a period of social stability in the USSR.
However, such stability also led to problems. Full employment led to serious economic inefficiencies. It is estimated that in the 1970s, there was hidden unemployment of around 20 per cent indicating that 20 per cent of employees were being paid but not being a productive part of the economy. At the same time, there were serious labour shortages in Soviet industry which affected production rates and slowed economic growth. Unemployment for women also rose as they were refused jobs in mining and heavy industry.
Despite subsidies, the cost of living was also high in terms of wages earned by Russians. The average Russian worker in 1979 had to work fo 4.5 hours to earn enough to buy a loaf of bread; the American equivalent only had to work for 48 minutes. Queues for essentials were a part of daily life - though availability of food varied from region to region.
In addition, although more was spent on health, infant mortality increased from 3% to 7% in the 1970s while life expectancy declined from 68 to 64 years for men in the same period; this was mainly due to alcohol consumption.
Task One
ATL: Thinking skills
What can you learn from this source about (a) daily life (b) the economy (c) corruption?
Living comfortably meant, as it had in the 1930s, 'blat' - using contacts to supply what was needed, whether in goods or services. There was a thriving black ('second') economy in the USSR for imported goods, foreign currency and especially illegally distilled vodka. One-third of private cars were supposedly run on government petrol, because there was also a condoned culture of pilfering from one's place of work. This might be car parts, cloth, processed food, and opera tickets - almost anything. If you needed repairs to any of your electrical appliances then you approached someone from the 'second economy'. In a sense the 'second economy' made possible the official planned economy, because it filled the gaps of supply. Nor was it confined to the lower echelons of society. Brezhnev's own family was heavily involved in underhand dealings'
Peter Oxley, Russia from Tsars to Commissars, OUP, 2001, pg 276
Personal freedom also became more limited. Criticism of Stalin was not allowed and historians such as Roy Medvedev and Viktor Danilov had their books banned. Alexander Solzhenitsyn, after the success of 'One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich', was now expelled from the Writers' Union meaning that he could no longer publish in the Soviet Union. Trouble makers, meanwhile, might now end up in psychiatric hospitals or mental asylums.
A Human Rights committee was set up by physicists Andrei Sakharov and Valeri Chalidzi to protest about conditions in labour camps and prisons and to demand freedom of speech. Writers began to circulate their own published works known as samizdat.
Task Two
ATL: Thinking skills
The following article contains a fascinating account of the history of samizdat and its importance during the era of Brezhnev
The writers who defied Soviet censors (www.bbc.com)
Underground publishers in the USSR broke rules in ingenious ways â such as hiding books in fake binding and making records on X-ray film, writes Benjamin Ramm.
Read the article and make notes on the impact of samizdat during the Brezhnev years. Note key individuals and publications involved, as well as the impact that the samizdat had.
The campaign for free speech and civil rights had some success, finding a voice in the western press. Under the Helsinki Agreement of 1973 the USSR agreed to guarantee civil rights which meant that both groups inside and outside of the USSR now had more weight in holding the USSR to account in this area. The Brezhnev Constitution of 1977 gave the appearance at least of confirming the civil rights of the people and the federal structure of the USSR. However, in January 1980, Sakharov was placed under house arrest in Gorky. Then, in September 1982, the Helsinki monitoring groups were disbanded.
Task Three
ATL: thinking and self management skills
In pairs or small groups, consider both the positives and negatives for the lives of ordinary Soviet citizens under Brezhnev.
5. Why did Brezhnev invade Czechoslovakia?
The main foreign policy concern for the Soviet Union in this period was still Soviet security; this firstly meant maintaining the buffer in Eastern Europe.
See this page for content and ATL on Brezhnev's actions in Czechoslovakia 5. The Prague Spring, 1968
6. What was Brezhnev's relationship with the West and China?
Security for the USSR also meant dealing with Chinese rivalry and attempting to maintain a satisfactory relationship with the West.
Task One
ATL: Thinking skills
Continue watching the video above from 16 minutes in until 30 minutes.
- Why were the USSR and China in conflict?
- Where did this conflict take place?
- What did many in the West perceive this conflict?
- Where did the most serious conflict take place between the Soviet Union and China?
- What actions did Brezhnev take in Vietnam?
- What did Brezhnev continue to do despite détente?
- What was the impact of the Yom Kippur War on US-Soviet relations?
- What was the significance of the Helsinki Accords?
- Which countries in Africa did the Soviets get involved in?
As you will have seen from the video, Soviet relations with the West at first improved in the years after Khrushchev. This was partly due to the winding down of the war in Vietnam and also the realisation that there was a need to manage the danger of a nuclear conflict, so clearly highlighted by the Cuban Missile crisis. The conflict with China as well as the cost of the arms race meant there were also clear benefits to having an improved relationship with the West. From 1968 the period of détente thus took place during which key treaties on nuclear arms control were signed. The high-point of detente were The Helsinki Accords signed in 1973.
However, even during the period of détente, the Soviet Union continued to increase its number of nuclear warheads. As the video shows, Brezhnev also continued to support left-wing groups in Africa - partly due to the fear of competition from China for the position of leader of the Communist world. Both these factors meant that détente faced growing criticism in the US. However, the final blow to detente came when the Soviets invaded Afghanistan.
See Paper 2 Cold War for more discussion on detente and the impact of the Helsinki Accords: 1.2 Theme 1 - Rivalry, Mistrust and Accord (ATL)
7. Why did the Soviets invade Afghanistan?
Although the West interpreted the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan as a sign that the Soviets were carrying out an expansionist foreign policy, in fact the invasion was about protecting Soviet interests in a country that was strategically important to the Soviet Union.
Task One
ATL: Thinking skills
Watch the following video from the CNN cold war series (Episode 20: Soldiers of God), and make notes under these headings (you could stop at 38 minutes when the video goes onto talking about Gorbachev's actions)
1. Reasons for the Soviet intervention
2. Reasons for the American support of the Mujahideen
3. Reasons why the USSR was not able to win the war quickly
4. The nature of US reaction to the Soviet invasion and the nature of their support for the Mujahedin
5. The role of Pakistan and the USA's relationship with Pakistan
6. The nature and effectiveness of the Mujahideen as a fighting force
7. The reasons for a failure of a peaceful settlement
8. The results of the war for the USSR
This is a very interesting video in the light of US actions in fighting in Afghanistan under President G.W. Bush - note Brzezinski's speech to the Mujahideen. If you have also done Vietnam as a war, you may want to do comparisons with the Afghanistan War - also relevant to Paper Two, Topic on Wars.
Task Two
ATL: Thinking skills
Read the following defense of the USSR's invasion of Afghanistan that was made by Alexander Bovin who was an editor of Izvestia and a former Central Committee member in April 1980.
1. According to Bovin, why did the USSR have to intervene in Afghanistan?
2. With reference to origin, purpose and content, assess the value and limitations of this source for historians studying the reasons for the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan.
Developments forced us to make a choice: we had either to bring in troops or let the Afghan revolution be defeated and the country turned into a kind of Shah's Iran. We decided to bring in the troops. It was not a simple decision to take... We knew that the victory of counter-revolution would pave the way for massive American military presence in a country which borders on the Soviet Union and that this was a challenge to our country's security. We know that the decision to bring in the troops would not be popular in the modern world even if it was absolutely legal. But we also knew that we would have ceased to be a great power if we refrained from taking extraordinary decisions prompted by extraordinary circumstances. There are situations where non-intervention is a disgrace and a betrayal. Such a situation developed in Afghanistan. And when I hear the voices of protest from people who claim to be democrats, humanists and even revolutionaries, saying they are outraged by Soviet 'intervention', I tell them this: If you are against Soviet military aid to Afghanistan, then you are for the victory of counter-revolution.
Task Three
ATL: Thinking skills
What other factors other than those outlined above might have influenced the USSR into intervening in Afghanistan?
See this page for a more detailed examination of this conflict: ATL: Afghanistan 1979 - 1992
Task Four
ATL: Thinking and self-management skills
Draw up a timeline 1964 to 1982 to show the key foreign policy developments that took place during these years.
Organise your timeline so that you have relations with the West above and relations with China below. You may also want to indicate on your timeline periods of relaxation of tension and periods of increased tension. Make it a useful revision document!
Having reviewed these key foreign policy events, do you consider Brezhnev's foreign policy to have been a success or a failure? Write a paragraph to argue each point of view.
8. What was the overall impact of Brezhnev on the USSR?
Task One
ATL: Thinking skills
In pairs, consider the following assessments of Brezhnev. What points are each historian making? Discuss what evidence could be used to support each assessment.
Source A
The Brezhnev era had been one of caution and conservatism in which there was a constant search to compromise with and 'buy off' potential institutional opponents rather than radical, risk-taking initiatives. This had some advantages at home where a new stability was given to the state-party political system. The conservative Brezhnev approach to political affairs had, however, significant costs to Soviet society..Firstly it entailed a continuation of centralised political and ideological control..Secondly, there were only tinkering attempts to inject new efficiency into the Soviet economy..Thirdly, the party leader's concern to maintain harmonious relations with the apparatchiki..led to the stultifying of the state and party bureaucracies and a growth in corruption..
Ian Derbyshire, Politics in the Soviet Union, 1987
Source B
Leonid Brezhnev was in the forefront of the partial rehabilitation of Stalin and the establishment of stable Party rule..Functionaries could breath easily again. After the terror of Stalin's reign and the chaos of Khrushchev's, the Soviet Union was in for a period of stability, and that meant everyone kept their job and their perks for life.
Gwyneth Hughes and Simon Welfare, Red Empire, the Forbidden History of the USSR, 1990
Source C
Brezhnev's image was not only as the harbinger of the collapse of the system, but also as the symbol of the decline of Bolshevik power, towards which the people had long become indifferent. The regime no longer inspired fear or respect.
Dmitri Volkogonov, The Rise and Fall of the Soviet Empire, 1998
In pairs discuss the following motion: 'Brezhnev's domestic policies were a complete failure for the USSR'
One of you should argue for the motion; the other in the pair should argue against the motion. All points need to backed up with evidence. Click on the eye below for hints.
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