Political issues:

As you have seen from the timeline, from 1871, Spain had been a constitutional monarchy. The king was head of state, and he appointed a prime minister who should have the backing of an elected majority in the parliament, or Cortes. However, real power remained in the hands of the wealthy oligarchs, and although elected by a limited section of the male population, political control merely shifted between different powerful cliques. There were two main parties, the Conservatives and the Liberals, but the difference between the parties was limited. Elections were usually rigged or decided by corruption. Spain had no mass democratic political parties. 

In addition, you will also have seen in the timeline activity that the army had historically intervened in politics in Spain. The army retained a powerful position due to its role in Spain’s imperial past and saw itself as the protector of the nation. This meant it had the right to intervene in politics if a crisis developed.  However, the army was unpopular with the Spanish people. It had a reputation for great brutality, it was hugely expensive, and had to be paid for via heavy taxation. It was in desperate need of reform, as the army was too large for post-imperial Spain. The upper and middle classes defended the scale of the military, which had far too many officers, as the upper classes dominated the officer corps. Politically, the army leaders were conservative, but there were elements, for example, the ‘Africanistas’, who were experienced in the wars in Morocco, who were deeply nationalistic. The credibility of the army had also been undermined when it lost a war with America in 1898 and struggled to keep control of Morocco between 1906 and 1926.

Socio-political tensions:

The Catholic Church was wealthy and powerful in Spain. Its power and political influence had led to disputes between church and state throughout the 19th century. The state had secured the backing of the Catholic church by guaranteeing its role in education and in elements of the economy. The church had used its wealth and position to gain considerable political and social influence. The church promoted social, political, and economic conservatism and it was opposed to liberal and modernizing forces. The aristocracy and upper classes had close ties to the church as they made up the vast majority of senior clergy, and provided much of the church’s funding.  Although the church was more popular in the rural areas, in many urban areas there were protests against the church which was resented for its association with the aristocracy and wealthy elites. Some of the educated middle class were also anti-clerical, promoted liberalism and wanted to limit the church’s power, specifically its control over education.

Regionalism (see map above):

A significant underlying cause of political tension was regionalism. The centralist
 state opposed the demands for autonomy from Catalonia and the Basque regions, which wanted decentralization and independence. The Catalans and the Basques had separate languages and cultures, independent churches and by the early 20th century they had industrialized their economies. Therefore, there were also economic strains between the regions and the central government. Most of Spain’s key industries were concentrated in the Catalan and Basque regions, including textiles, iron, and coal industries in Catalonia, and shipbuilding in the Basque country. Political protests and strikes were met with brutal state suppression. Between 1918 and 1921, 1,000 people were killed in protests in Barcelona alone.

Economic problems:

Spain was primarily an agricultural economy, and agricultural labour was the main source of employment. However, it was highly inefficient and most agricultural work was ‘seasonal’. This meant that rural workers had to migrate to find work and the majority lived in gruelling poverty.  In the south and centre of Spain, there were vast landed estates, the latifundia, owned by the ‘Grandees’.  This elite group also dominated the political system. In the north of the country, peasants owned small plots of land, which were often only adequate for a subsistence living standard. The stark divisions between the rich and poor in the countryside led to frequent rioting and disturbances. The state’s Civil Guard was used to crush disorder.

Some of the rural poor turned from church organizations, such as the Catholic Agrarian Federation, to radical political groups such as the anarchists. The anarchists demanded the redistribution of land.

Furthermore, Spain needed economic modernization. Although some areas of the north had industrialized there had been a lack of reform and investment. Workers in the urbanized cities, like the rural poor, had a low standard of living due to low wages, long hours, unregulated working conditions, poor housing, and limited or no welfare provision. The environment in the industrialized areas led to the growth of trade unionism. However, the unions’ main tool to gain concessions from employers – strike action – was blunted by the migration of unemployed seasonal workers from the countryside. The unions were also divided between anarchist and socialist groups. The urban workers’ political parties had no political power. Thus, with no legal means of affecting change, elements of the working classes looked to violent upheaval and revolution to improve their situation. 

These systemic economic issues were given some respite by Spain’s neutrality during the First World War.  Indeed, between 1914 and 1918 there a period of economic boom as exports increased. However, there were also shortages and inflation that led to working-class living standards declining further. The government failed to capitalize on the war years, and in the early 1920s there were major economic problems. Working class militancy had grown and in industrial cities in Catalonia there were violent confrontations.    

Political divisions:

There was a Liberal movement in Spain, mainly supported by the educated middle classes. It had not achieved much in opposing the conservative forces in Spain throughout 
the 19th century, however, it remained a political force in Spain in the 1920s. In the late 19^th century the Partido Socialista Obrero Español (PSOE, Spanish Socialist Party) had developed in urban areas in the late 19th century, but had had limited impact. However, its trade union, the UGT was active. The more moderate Socialists were led by Indalecio Prieto, and the more radical group were led by Largo Caballero. There was also a small Spanish Communist party that had been founded after the Bolshevik revolution in Russia in 1917.

In addition to the socialists, as you have already seen, the anarchists were a major political group in Spain.  The anarchists were popular in the countryside due to their demand for the redistribution of land and they also had established trade unions in some Spanish cities. The anarchists trade union was active in organizing strikes and protests.  A more extreme anarchist faction, called the Federación Anarquista Ibérica (FAI, Spanish Anarchist Federation), carried out bombings and assassinations. The anarchists would not engage in any democratic processes and called for revolution.

Liberalism

• Liberals emphasize the freedom of the individual
• Minimal interference by the state in the economy  
• Promote the ideas of free trade and co-operation
• Civil liberties
• Universal suffrage
• Parliamentary constitutional government
• An independent judiciary
• Diplomacy rather than force in foreign relations

Nationalism

• Patriotism for a country, its geography, its people, its culture, and institutions
• Sometimes elements of xenophobia or fear / dislike of other countries / foreigners
• Humans are born into a national identity
• Each nation has the right to a homeland, territory, and sovereignty
• The state has rights over the individual

Anarchism

• Political power gives economic control and this explains the subjugation of the working classes
• Promotes a society without authority, rulers and rules.  Society can only be fair and equal when humans act according to the dictates of their own consciences
• Society should be formed of associations of independent workers, with factories and utilities run by these associations
• There would only be contracts of mutual interest and a process of arbitration rather than courts
• Radical anarchists: argue for violent revolution as the powerful will never give up their position, so violence is necessary to destroy the oppressive system and privileges
• Non-revolutionary anarchists: power can be devolved from the central government to local governments.  Over time devolution will secure the destruction of the state and the creation of self-governing communities

Socialism

• A more equal socio-economic system
• The government controls key industries and agricultural interests and taxes the rich to finance a better standard of living for all
• Government provides for more support for the poor including housing, healthcare, education and unemployment benefits
• International co-operation and solidarity

The difference between socialists and anarchists is the definition of what was the root cause of problems in society:

• Socialists – inequalities of wealth inevitably lead to inequalities of power
• Anarchists – inequalities of power lead inevitably to inequalities of wealth

Communism

• All human actions and institutions are economically determined
• Class struggle is the key causal factor for historical change
• Capitalism will be overthrown by communism
• No ownership of property – all is ‘commonly’ held by the community
• No state
• ‘Each according to his ability, each according to his need’
• Communists claim socialism is the stage after capitalism has been overthrown in the communist explanation of historical change

Successes

• De Rivera ended the conflict in Morocco with the assistance of the French in 1925
• Set up a system of arbitration to end the conflict between industrial workers and employers that gained him some support from the socialists.
• Gave limited government subsidies to improve housing and health care of working classes
• Oversaw a sustained period of economic growth due to large scale investment in infrastructure projects such as roads, dams and irrigation
• Facilitated a period of political stability

Failures

• Social justice reform of fiscal system was defeated by banking sector. De Rivera had wanted to tax capital as well as wages
• Economic growth based on world trade boom between 1923 and 1929, economy enters period of crisis after Wall Street Crash in 1929 and ensuing global depression
• Great Depression impacted Latin America badly and this damaged trade with Spain’s key partners
• Government borrowed heavily to finance infrastructure projects
• De Rivera overvalued the Peseta before being forced to accept a significant devaluation
• The socialists withdrew support from the government as workers living standards fell
• Censorship and promotion of the influence of the church in higher education alienated the liberals and intellectuals
• Opposed regional autonomy and reduced Catalonia’s independence by banning the use of Catalan in religious services.
• Only introduced very limited land reform – opposed extensive interference in land ownership in the countryside
• Nationalists were disappointed by his failure to extend Spain’s north African territories and by his failure to gain Spain a permanent seat on the Council of the League of Nations
• The army was hostile to the disbandment of the Artillery corps

Economic reform

• Arbitration committees were set up in the countryside to resolve disputes between landowners and laborers.
• Landowners were not permitted to hire migrant workers if local hires were available.
• 1932 Agrarian Reform gave power to the state to confiscate and redistribute land from the Latifundias and the church to landless laborers. 

Regional autonomy

• Autonomy was given to Catalonia in 1932 and its new regional government was given wide ranging powers.

Social reform

• Religious freedom was enshrined in the new constitution.  Civil marriages were introduced and divorce legalized. Church control of education was ended in the Associations Law which banned priests and nuns from teaching. As well as secularizing education, the state nationalized church property.
• The state invested heavily in education. It trained thousands of new teachers and built more than 7,000 new schools.

Military reform

• From 1931, officers were offered early retirement on full pay to reduce the size of the huge Spanish standing army. Although around 40% of officers ultimately accepted the proposal, the army was appalled that the government had suggested that retirement would be imposed if there were insufficient volunteers.
• Military promotions were cancelled.
• Some military academies were closed down.

Economic issues

• Great Depression meant government had insufficient funds to finance reforms.
• Land reforms only benefitted 7,000 families as government could not afford compensation to landowners.
• Violence increased in the countryside.  The anarchists viewed the land reforms as far too limited and a failure.  In Casas Viejas the assault guard killed 25 anarchists.
• The removal of church run schools meant the government had to try to fund the building of new schools and the training and payment of teachers.
• The military reform did not save the government money as retired officers retained full pay

Political issues

• Catalan autonomy undermined the unity of the state and was opposed by conservatives
• Right wing elements of the army opposed regional autonomy
• The CEDA, led by Gil Robles, was an authoritarian right wing party set up in February 1933.  It had a manifesto that promoted and protected the church, opposed the republic, and supported the property owners and conservative peasantry.
• The royalist Carlist movement gained new support for its aim to restore the monarchy under the claim of Don Carlos.
• The socialists were disillusioned by what they saw as very limited reforms under Azana.

Military issues

• Government inflamed opposition within the military as its threatened compulsory retirement if there was a lack of volunteers
• The military reforms had far reaching consequences as the officers that refused early retirement tended to be more political and highly nationalist and opposed to the Left Republics reforms
• A military coup led by General Sanjurjo failed in August 1932.

Social issues

• Strong opposition from the church as its interests were threatened
• Government failed to manage the expectations of the working classes for example, better health care