1. Why did Japan annex Korea in 1910?

Starter:

Looking at this map what is the significance of Korea's position? From whom could they face threats?

Why do you think that Japan called Korea 'a dagger pointing at the heart of Japan'?

In order to understand why Japan annexed Korea in 1910, it is necessary to understand Japan's development from the time that it was forced to open up for trade by the Americans in 1855. (You may have covered this under Topic 11). It is also necessary to understand the weakness of China at the end of the 19th Century.

Japanese nationalism began in the second half of the 19th century when Japan had its first contact with the West. Up until this time, it had been isolated from the outside world - a policy maintained by Japan's rulers, the Shogun. However, in 1853 Commodore Perry, an American naval officer, arrived on the shores of Japan with several US steam ships demanding that Japan open up for trade.

Task One

ATL: Research skills

Task Two

ATL: Thinking skills

2. What was the impact of Japanese annexation in 1910?

'The colonial experience was intense and bitter and shaped postwar Korea deeply'

Bruce Cumings, Korea's place in the Sun, 2005

Korea was formally annexed by Japan on 22 August 1910.

Article 1 of the Japan-Korea Treaty stipulated that:

His Majesty the Emperor of Korea concedes completely and definitely his entire sovereignty over the whole Korean territory to His Majesty the Emperor of Japan.

Starter:

Watch this video for the first 5 minutes to get an overview of Japanese rule after 1910:

Annexation meant that Japan was in control of all aspects of Korean life and this had far reaching effects for the Koreans.

Initially rule was very repressive but then in 1920, following criticism of its laws (including the March 1 protests), Japan eased some of its restrictive policies with a policy of 'cultural rule' which involved a more 'enlightened' approach. However, by the 1930s with the Japanese government itself increasingly under the control of the military, those who advocated more lenient policies were removed or assassinated.

Political effects

• The royal family and elites in Korean ruling circles were paid off with money and titles while the highest posts in the central state and in the provinces were filled by Koreans who were loyal to Japan, many of whom had spent time in Japan
• The first decade saw a heavy handed 'military policy'. where police had a large role throughout the country collecting taxes and enforcing laws.  They were authorised to conduct 'administrative trials' that were not subject to higher judicial review; this meant they could also hand out fines, jail terms and punishments such as whipping with bamboo canes.
• Power was centralised with the Governor-General exercising authoritative and coercive control. Central bureaucratic power extended into the counties and villages. Every Governor General was a military man and Japan stationed a big army in Korea to help ensure control.
• Opposition to colonial control did exist but was treated harshly and never succeeded in disrupting Japanese rule. This was also because it lacked coherence. Some nationalists wanted closer ties with the West while others wanted a return to Korean traditional values. Others followed communist ideals following the success of the Russian Revolution in 1917.

Economic effects

• A massive land survey was carried out which overturned nearly forty thousand undocumented claims to land ownership; this had a devastating effect on many rural Korean families who now had to become tenant farmers paying rent on land that they had previously owned
• Newly available land was taken over by Japanese-owned agricultural co-operatives
• By 1939 most large-scale industries were owned by Japan-based corporations or by Japanese corporations in Korea
• Most Korean companies could not compete with Japanese firms, many of which enjoyed tax exemptions and official guarantees against losses. Korean entrepreneurs were charged interest rates 25% higher than their Japanese counterparts
• Although many Koreans found employment in the new Japanese factories, most held low-paid menial jobs. Even when Korean workers did the same job as a Japanese worker, they received considerably less pay
• With the new Governor-General (General Ugaki Kazushige) in 1931 which coincided with the Manchurian Incident, Japan moved to build up the Korean economy as part of the empire-wide programme of economic self-sufficiency and preparation for war. More railroads, roads, ports and manufacturing industries, which focused on areas such as chemical plants and munitions, were built

Social effects

• In 1907 the Japanese government passed the Newspaper Law which prevented the publication of local papers. In 1920, responding to criticisms of its harsh regime, these laws were relaxed as Japan started its 'cultural policy' (see above)
• The number of schools was increased; about half of all children of school age were in attendance at elementary schools by 1940
• With the arrival of General Ugaki, a policy of assimilation started which was continued by his successor, General Minami Jirō. Concerned with getting the Korean population to fully support the industrialisation programme and also to enure their loyalty, an attempt was made to extinguish a separate Korean cultural identity and to embed Japanese values as indicated by the slogan 'Korea and the Homeland, Together as One'. Patriotic groups were established to promote support for the war and these increased surveillance and control over the population.
• From 1935, Koreans had to recite an oath of loyalty to the emperor and worship at Shinto shrines. Children were also forbidden from speaking Korean at school.
• In 1939, Koreans had to abandon their birth names and adopt Japanese-style surnames and given names. Those who refused to do so were not allowed to enroll at school and could not get food rations. And for those whose jobs depended on the colonial system, taking a Japanese name was unavoidable.

Task One

ATL: Thinking skills

Task Two

ATL: Thinking skills

Task Three

ATL: Research skills

Task Four

ATL: Thinking skills

3. What was the impact of the Second World War on Korea?

Korean volunteers in the Japanese Imperial Army, 1943

The pressures faced by Japan as it fought an unwinnable war in China and, from 1942, being pushed back by the US in the Pacific, meant increased hardships for the Koreans as well as more intense propaganda to ensure that Koreans were totally loyal. Korea experienced 'total war' policies as the economy and the population were mobilised for the war effort.

Koreans were also involved directly in the fighting and the war effort in several ways.

1. Many Koreans ended up filling labour shortages in Japan and Manchuria as well as other newly acquired land such as Sakhalin Island. These Koreans were forced to work in coal mines, military plants and munition factories and they suffered terrible conditions. Many thousands died from the inhumane conditions and also in the Allied bombing.

2. Tens of thousands of women were coerced or lured by promises of economic reward into the 'Comfort Corps' which set up brothels for the Japanese military.

3. Koreans joined the Imperial Army as 'volunteers'. From 1944, Koreans were conscripted into the army.

4. Some Koreans acted as prison guards for the Japanese and became notorious for their brutality

As many as 70,000 Korean males died as manual laborers in Japan or as 'volunteers' in the Imperial Army during the war.

Task One

ATL: Research skills

With Japan's formal surrender to the Allies, its rule of Korea ended. Many Koreans who had become prisoners of war were repatriated to Korea. However, many Koreans who survived their forced labour in Japan were not allowed to become citizens of Japan and they were also shunned by the South Korean government.

In addition, 148 Koreans were convicted of war crimes and 3 of those who convicted were sentenced to death. Those who were convicted included many prison guards were had gained a notorious reputation for brutality in the Japanese POW camps.

4. Why did Korea end up as a divided country after 1945?

South Koreans protesting Allied trusteeship in 1945

'The crucible of the period of national division and opposing states that still exists in Korea was the years from 1943 to 1953. The political and ideological divisions that we associate with the Cold War were the reasons for Korea's division; they came early to Korea, before the onset of the global Cold War, and today they outlast the end of the Cold War everywhere else.'

Bruce Cumings, pg 185

Already at the Tehran Conference of 1943, where the Allied powers met together for the first time, Korea had been discussed. The Allied powers agreed that Japan should lose all of its conquered territories and they declared that they were, "mindful of the enslavement of the people of Korea, ... determined that in due course Korea shall become free and independent."

Following the dropping of the Atomic bombs on Japan, the USSR entered the war against Japan. Soviet troops advanced rapidly and the US was concerned that the Soviets would occupy the whole of Korea. Without consulting any Koreans and using a National Geographic map to guide them, they rapidly drew up a division of Korea along the 38th parallel with the US having control in the South and thus control of the capital Seoul. The Soviets agreed and the decision was incorporated into General Order No 1 for the surrender of Japan.

In December 1945 at the Council of Foreign Ministers' Moscow Conference, the Allies then agreed on the creation of a Korean provisional government, followed by a short period of international trusteeship which would ultimately lead to independence.

Task One

ATL: Research skills

The original plan for Korean independence as agreed at the Moscow Conference was hard to achieve because:

• As the Cold War developed, the USA and the USSR became less willing to co-operate
• Separate administrations emerged on either side of the 38th parallel. In the South, the US military government put forward as leader Syngman Rhee while the Soviets supported the Communists and backed a faction headed by Kim Il Sung.