Evaluate the argument that the most important causes of the Mfecane were economic.

Candidates are required to appraise the merit of the argument that the most important causes of the Mfecane were economic. They may look at factors such as the economic changes resulting from the introduction of corn and the rise of slaving activities in the region, which led in turn to ecological pressures and competition for resources. Other non-economic factors such as the personal role of Shaka in unleashing wars of conquest in southern Africa, as well as military innovations and changes in political organization, may also be considered.

Indicative content

Economic causes

• Candidates may refer to the rise in agricultural productivity resulting from the introduction of corn in the region in the late 18th century. This led to a significant increase in population, and subsequently to fierce competition between Nguni kingdoms over increasingly scarce resources. This rivalry became particularly acute in the decade-long period of drought immediately preceding the Mfecane.
• The establishment of a Portuguese trading station in nearby Delagoa Bay and rivalry between Nguni kingdoms for control of the access routes to this lucrative trade could be discussed.
• The destabilizing impact on Nguni society of slaving raids could be considered. These resulted from a heavy demand for slaves from Delagoa Bay and the Cape.
• Candidates may discuss the economic benefits of wars of conquest launched against neighbouring kingdoms, including the capture of herds of cattle. This provided a strong incentive for military aggression.

Other causes

• Shaka’s leadership and the aggression and expansionism of the Zulu who launched a series of wars of conquest across the region.
• The highly-centralized organization of the Zulu state, which enabled Shaka to maintain a disciplined and well-drilled standing army. Candidates may also discuss how he introduced certain military reforms such as his organization of the army according to the age grade system.
• The immensely successful military strategies and innovations of the Zulu. These included the ox-head battle formation and the use of the iklwa, a short stabbing spear. These were in turn mimicked by other Nguni armies: a factor that spread the impact of the Mfecane far and wide.

The above material is an indication of what candidates may elect to write about in their responses. However, the list is not exhaustive and no set answer is required.

Examiners and moderators are reminded of the need to apply the markbands that provide the “best fit” to the responses given by candidates and to award credit wherever it is possible to do so.

[20 marks]