With reference to urban environments, describe:

(i) one type of centrifugal movement;

(ii) one type of centripetal movement.

Explain two features of the internal structure of the central business district (CBD).

Evaluate the success of two different urban management strategies.

(i)  Centrifugal movements include suburbanization, counter-urbanization and urban sprawl [1] and the description should convey that this is an outward movement of people [1].

(ii) Centripetal movements include rural–urban migration, gentrification, re-urbanization/urban renewal [1] and the description should convey that this is an inward movement of people [1].

Award [1] for each feature identified, and up to [2] for extended description and explanation (but must have some explanation for full marks).

For example: The centre/core of the CBD tends to have the tallest building/skyscrapers [1] in a city. This is because land prices are highest in the city centre [1] due to shortage of space/high demand for more central location/developers build upwards to create more retail/service space [1].

Other possibilities include:

• internal zoning [1]: clustering of certain facilities and services in particular areas [1] eg high order retailing in the centre (core), services towards the edge (frame) [1]
• certain types of shops/services may cluster (clothing/jewellery/electronics) [1] due to the reputation that an area develops [1] and to allow consumers to comparative-shop [1].

Management strategies can relate to:

• housing issues (quantity, quality – self-help, site and service, redevelopment, renewal, gentrification)
• population issues – migration control, population growth
• transport issues – congestion, air quality, greenhouse gas emissions, improvements to public transport
• employment – number and types of jobs
• service provision – access to education and health care
• environmental issues – air pollution, water pollution.

The successful funding and provision of measures can be credited as a self-evident sign of success. A more detailed evaluation of success might additionally provide actual data/evidence of any urban changes associated with the strategies (such as population, economic, pollution data).

Good answers may provide a structured examination of success that, in addition to the strengths and weaknesses of strategies, also considers how these may vary according to perspective of different groups of people (a sustainability approach might be adopted). Another approach might be to consider the time or spatial scale of any success (in some cases it may be too soon to judge what the legacy will be realistically). Another approach might be to provide a structured examination of how success varies for the two chosen places (which may well be cities in countries/contexts at different stages of development).

For band D, expect some description of two urban management strategies (do not expect balance).

At band E, expect either more detailed explanation of the strategies (do not expect balance) or a structured examination of their level of success (goes beyond simple success/failure and examines different perspectives/timescales/developmental
contexts/etc).

At band F expect both of these elements.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

Quite well answered, although there was some confusion regarding the two types of movement. “Urbanization” was not credited for centripetal movement. Each type of movement must be developed to gain full marks.

There were some problems regarding understanding of the term “internal structure of the CBD”. Each feature needed to be developed/explained for full marks. Pedestrian numbers, and lack of residential housing, for example, are not structure.

This was quite well answered with effective use of examples. Note that the question referred to two different strategies – some candidates referred to different cities using similar strategies. Strong candidates showed good knowledge of some common case studies, eg Curitiba, but often knowledge was generalized. The weakest did not discuss strategies, but topics such as “suburbanization”. There was limited attempt to evaluate the success of management strategies.