Discuss two theories explaining altruism in humans.

Refer to the paper 2 assessment criteria when awarding marks.

The command term “discuss” requires candidates to offer a considered review of two theories of altruism in humans. Although two theories must be addressed, this does not have to be evenly balanced.

Animal research may be used as long as a clear link is made to human behaviour.

Theories may include, but are not limited to:

• kin selection theory
• reciprocal altruism theory
• the negative-state relief model
• empathy-altruism theory
• social exchange theory.

Discussion may include, but is not limited to:

• strengths and limitations of the theories
• methodological considerations of studies
• cultural/gender considerations
• supporting and/or contradictory empirical evidence
• alternative explanations.

Explanations of bystanderism, diffusion of responsibility and/or cost–benefit analysis should not be awarded marks.

If a candidate discusses more than two theories, credit should be given only to the first two theories. However, candidates may discuss other theories/studies and be awarded marks for this as long as these theories/studies are clearly used to discuss one or both of the main theories addressed in the response.

If a candidate discusses only one theory, the response should be awarded up to a maximum of [5] for criterion A, knowledge and comprehension, up to a maximum of [4] for criterion B, critical thinking, and up to a maximum of [2] for criterion C, organization.