Examine the reasons for, and the consequences of, the failure of the Western trade missions to China.

Candidates will consider the reasons why the Western trade missions failed to achieve their aims and gauge the significance of this failure in the worsening of relations between China and the West. Some candidates may suggest that mutual incomprehension was at the heart of the failure of the trade missions. Others may additionally, or alternatively, argue that China’s deeper domestic difficulties provided context for the failure of the missions. However, there is no prescribed response.

Indicative content

Macartney Mission 1793

• The key aims of the British trade mission were to relax the rules of the Canton System, establish an embassy and to persuade the Chinese to buy British goods rather than only trade for silver.
• Reasons for failure could include that the meetings did not take place in Beijing (Peking), which undermined Macartney’s wish for a permanent embassy there; Macartney refused to kowtow in the presence of the Qianlong (Ch’ien-lung) Emperor; the Qianlong Emperor referred to all Europeans as barbarians.
• The consequence of failure was that although the mission failed to achieve its aims the observations made during the mission made the British even more determined to “open up” China.

Amherst Mission 1816

• Amherst’s instructions were to remove the grievances at Canton: establish free trade; abolish the Co-hong system; allow the British traders to reside there without a time limit; open more ports to trade; and to establish diplomatic representation in Beijing.
• Amherst refused to kowtow and refused to attend an audience with the Emperor immediately upon arrival in Beijing. This resulted in his trade mission being expelled from China without results.
• The consequences were that the Chinese Emperor was insulted, but he only continued to allow trade for fear of war with Britain. The British government decided to avoid war for the time being and tacitly allowed the growth of the illegal trade in opium by private traders.

Napier Mission 1834

• The main aim was to develop further British trade with China by opening up more ports.
• Reasons for failure could include that Lord Napier lacked diplomatic skills and ignored Chinese protocol; he attempted to bypass the Canton System by communicating directly with Chinese officials.
• The consequence of this failure was that Napier favoured military action to break the deadlock and sent ships to Huangpu (Whampoa), where a skirmish broke out.

General reasons

• Reasons for the failure of the trade missions could include China’s view of itself as the Middle Kingdom; the different views of the Chinese and British on trade, for example, the Canton System in contrast to the British view of free trade; cultural difference, for example, China’s tributary system in contrast to Britain’s desire for diplomatic relations.
• Candidates may also discuss general consequences of the failure of the missions. These may include worsening relations, including the increase of opium being imported into China and the build up to the First Opium War.

The above material is an indication of what candidates may elect to write about in their responses. However, the list is not exhaustive and no set answer is required.

Examiners and moderators are reminded of the need to apply the markbands that provide the “best fit” to the responses given by candidates and to award credit wherever it is possible to do so.

[20 marks]