Discuss the reasons why Johnson was more successful than Eisenhower and Kennedy in securing the passage of civil rights legislation.

This question focuses on the reasons why more was achieved by Johnson than his two predecessors. Candidates may compare the political climate in which the presidents operated, the presidents’ motivation and commitment to civil rights and their ability to enact legislation, which was often influenced by the level of support in Congress.

Indicative content

India

• Eisenhower continued the desegregation of the military and some progress was made in the desegregation of education, for example, Little Rock, 1957. The Civil Rights Acts of 1957 and 1960 were both passed during his administration although he had little to do with these. Kennedy attempted to facilitate the voting rights of people in the South and to pass the Civil
  Rights Act of 1963 but was assassinated before significant change could be achieved. Johnson, however, was able to build on Kennedy’s actions and utilize changing public attitudes to pass the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the Voting Rights Act of 1965 and gain approval of the 24th Amendment, which eliminated poll taxes.
• With regard to political position, Eisenhower, despite victories in 1952 and 1956, had control over Congress for only two years while Kennedy had a very narrow victory in 1960 and had no command over Congress. Johnson had a landslide victory in 1964 and enjoyed a great deal of support in Congress and so was much better placed to pass legislation.
• With reference to their commitment to the cause, Eisenhower did not prioritize civil rights, Kennedy was preoccupied with foreign affairs and Johnson made social change, including civil rights, a priority.
• Public attitudes changed over time and events such as the Freedom Riders, the March on Washington, the Selma March the influence of leaders such as Martin Luther King and Malcolm X, made the nation more aware of inequality and discrimination and more likely, by 1964, to support desegregation.

The above material is an indication of what candidates may elect to write about in their responses. However, it is not exhaustive and no set answer is required.

Examiners and moderators are reminded of the need to apply the markbands that provide the “best fit” to the responses given by candidates and to award credit wherever it is possible to do so.

[20 marks]