Examine the varying impact of human activity on urban microclimates and air pollution.

Examine the interrelationships between the growth of cities and their infrastructure development.

Refer to Paper 1 markbands (available under the "Your tests" tab > supplemental materials).

The focus of the response should be on the modification of urban microclimates by human activity. This includes patterns and sources of air pollution, and the causes and effects of urban heat islands. Other aspects of urban microclimates that might be considered include wind strength and variability and precipitation types and amounts. Consideration might be given to management strategies to reduce adverse effects of air pollution.

Possible applied themes (AO2) demonstrating knowledge and understanding (AO1):

• The various causes and patterns of air pollution within cities, including the role of transport and industry, and types of pollution varying with combustion of fossil fuels.
• The environmental impact and the social and economic costs of air pollution, including health issues and social stress.
• Causes of urban heat islands and the spatial and temporal variations in intensity.
• Atmospheric pollution, heat islands and the nature of built-up areas might also affect wind and precipitation in cities.
• Strategies to improve air quality are of increasing importance in many cities. These include use of alternative energy, such as electric vehicles, development of public transport and reducing traffic congestion.
• The relative success of strategies to improve air quality may vary with context: rapidly growing megacities in low-income countries, compared with cities in high-income countries.

Good answers may be well-structured (AO4) and may additionally offer a critical evaluation (AO3) of the statement in a way that shows understanding of the causes, spatial variation and impacts of human activity on urban microclimates. One approach might be to examine the challenges faced by governments and urban planners to improve air quality in different places and contexts. There may be an evaluation of the relative success of strategies in the context of ensuring a sustainable urban future. Another approach might be to consider the perspectives and power of different stakeholders.

For 5–6 marks, expect some weakly evidenced outlining of the impact of human activity on urban microclimates and/or air pollution.

For 7–8 marks, expect a structured account that includes:

• either evidenced examination of varying impacts of human activity on urbanmicroclimates and air pollution (do not expect balance)
• or a discursive conclusion (or ongoing evaluation) grounded in geographical concepts and/or perspectives.

For 9–10 marks, expect both of these traits.

Refer to Paper 1 markbands (available under the "Your tests" tab > supplemental materials).

The focus of the response should be on different types of urban infrastructure, including transport, waste disposal and provision of clean water and how the development of infrastructure has or has not kept pace with urban growth. Consideration may be given to the various challenges and opportunities faced by decision-makers and urban planners.

Possible applied themes (AO2) demonstrating knowledge and understanding (AO1):

• The development of adequate infrastructure is essential for the success of economic activity, living standards and quality of life of urban dwellers.Different types of urban infrastructure should be considered in the context of one or more cities.
• Rapid urban growth puts strain and pressures on infrastructure. The problems are acute in large cities, especially megacities in lower-income countries, which are facing a dramatic increase in population. This is reflected in poor transport systems, congestion and a lack of basic facilities in large areas of slums. In addition, higher-income countries suffer from aging infrastructure in need of repair and replacement, together with congested transport networks. Although population growth may be relatively small, the cost of renewal and repair of infrastructure is high.
• There are significant challenges to urban planners and different stakeholders. Solutions should be designed for the future sustainability of urban systems, possibly involving an integrated approach combining transport, energy, water and waste.

Good answers may be well-structured (AO4) and may additionally offer a critical evaluation (AO3) of the statement in a way that shows understanding of the issues and interrelationships surrounding the development of infrastructure in relation to urban areas and communities. One approach might be to critically examine how possibilities for further urban growth rely on perpetual infrastructure development and improvement. Another approach might be to consider the power of different stakeholders, such as national and local governments, urban planners and local people.

For 5–6 marks, expect some weakly evidenced outlining of the relationship between urban growth and infrastructure development.

For 7–8 marks, expect a structured account that includes:

• either evidenced examination of issues / problems concerning the relationship between urban growth and infrastructure development in different geographical contexts
• or a discursive conclusion (or ongoing evaluation) grounded in geographical concepts and/or perspectives.

For 9–10 marks, expect both of these traits.