Outline two ways in which sediment is transported by a river.

Using one named example of an international conflict related to freshwater, briefly explain one cause of the conflict.

Using one named example of an international conflict related to freshwater, briefly explain two consequences of the conflict.

Examine how human activity influenced the severity of one named river flood event.

In each case, award [1] for correctly identifying the term and [1] for including some specific detail of the process, eg may quantify the particle size (accept “large” or “small”), or use specialist vocabulary.

For example:

• Saltation [1] is jumping/bouncing of small particles along the river bed [1].
• Traction [1] is heavier material dragged or rolled along the bed [1].

Other possibilities include:

• solution
• suspension
• floatation.

Award [1] for identifying a named conflict and [1] for some specific explanation of the cause.

For example: Sudan and Egypt had a conflict over the Nile river, as both are in need of limited water supplies [1] to satisfy the demands of their growing populations [1].

Other possible causes might be:

• two countries both in need of limited water supplies
• population/economic pressures
• environmental/climate change
• water security/boundary dispute
• hydropower schemes along transboundary rivers
• industrial pressures.

Award [1] for each consequence identified and [1] for some further explanation or development.

Possible consequences could include:

• treaties/international agreement [1] and gives further detail (which may include quotas and water allowances) [1]
• escalation of international conflict [1] and gives a detail, eg political repercussions [1]
• one country builds a dam to maximize its supply [1] and gives a detail, eg date of construction, or ecological/economic harm downstream, or navigation issues [1]
• a substitution strategy, eg desalinization [1] and gives a detail [1].

For example: Sudan and Egypt’s conflict resulted in the Nile treaty [1], which set limits for water use by each country [1]. As a consequence of now having access to less water, the Egyptians have tried to use desalinization to meet their water needs [1]. This uses a process called reverse osmosis to remove salt and produce freshwater [1].

Two separate consequences are needed; do not credit multiple problems associated with dam construction.

Human factors that can increase flood severity include: deforestation and changing agricultural practices in the drainage basin, removal of wetlands, urbanization/increasing concrete surfaces/drainage ditches and changes to the channel flow.

Human factors that can sometimes decrease severity include straightening, widening, building levees, etc.

Physical factors may be highly relevant for some case studies.

Good answers may examine how human activity can increase and/or decrease the risk of floods in complex ways (levees may reduce or increase flood risk).

Another approach may be to examine how human activities along one stretch of river have impacts for other places on the river. Rapid emergency responses might also reduce the severity of the flood.

At band D, expect a description of the ways in which human activity has caused the named flood event.

At band E, expect either a more detailed explanation of a greater range of human activities or a structured examination of how human activity has influenced flood severity.

At band F, expect both.

Marks should be allocated according to the Paper 2 HL and SL markbands.