State four main characteristics of a central business district (CBD).

Explain the processes of gentrification and counter-urbanization.

Contrast the causes and effects of air pollution for two named urban areas.

Characteristics that can be outlined for [1 mark] each include:

• low residential population
• economic/tertiary activity (shops, offices, entertainment) found here
• at the centre of a settlement or at intersection of routes
• very high buildings especially at PLVI
• functional zoning of types of service
• vertical zoning eg offices above shops
• convenience shops at edges of CBD
• “Core and frame” structure
• evidence of zones of discard/assimilation
• high value pedestrian flows
• high traffic flows (or low if pedestrianized)
• there may be other valid points.

Gentrification

Explanatory points for [1 mark] each, to a maximum of [3 marks] include:

• usually seen as a centripetal/inwards movement
• more affluent people move in, displacing less affluent people
• house prices rise/there are home improvements
• incomers are looking for cheap properties for renovation (and profit)
• other pull factors include: vibrancy/authentic city life/proximity to CBD/work (do not over-credit multiple pull factors, as this is only one aspect of the process of change)
• broader neighbourhood changes as affluence rises eg restaurants
• credit other valid aspects of the process of change.

Counter-urbanization

Explanatory points for [1 mark] each, to a maximum of [3 marks] include:

• a centrifugal/outwards movement
• moving to new town/out-of-town village/commuter town near edge of town (but do not credit suburbs/suburbanization)
• can also be beyond the commuting zone eg remote rural areas
• age-selective process associated with retired migrants
• also may involve young families with children
• migrants are drawn by “quality of life”/environment, etc or pushed by high prices, crime etc (do not over-credit multiple push-pull factors, as this is only one aspect of the process of change)
• credit other valid aspects of the process of change.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

The most effective answers will be those that use properly contrasting examples such as two cities at contrasting levels of development (this approach is recommended in the guide, page 38).

Depending on the exact examples chosen, causes may include human factors (transport, industry, and domestic burning of coal, gas, paraffin) and physical factors (eg anti-cyclonic weather conditions).

The effects are likely to include impacts on health (impact of traffic in Mexico City), microclimate (lack of “blue sky days” in Beijing), biodiversity (decline of sensitive species eg lichen), weathering (especially of limestone buildings) and the costs for
tourism (clean-up of polluted buildings, or the cost of lost tourism eg Chinese cities in 2012–13).

Good opportunities for making a contrast may be found by highlighting the different roles played by physical factors, governance, stages of economic development etc that pertain to the two chosen studies.

For band D, candidates must describe some causes and effects of air pollution and make some reference to two examples (balance between all of these elements is not expected at this level). 

Band E should either provide greater exemplified detail of both causes and effects in both cities (with greater balance) or offer a more sustained and explicit contrast (but across a narrower range of ideas).

At band F, expect both elements.

Good understanding was shown on the characteristics of a CBD.

Surprisingly only a few candidates could explain the processes of gentrification and counter-urbanization adequately to cover all the main points.

This question elicited some very weak responses. Most candidates could name two areas correctly but could not do justice to contrasting the causes and effects of air pollution. There were some general statements regarding air pollution but specific details were missing.