From information shown on the graph:

(i) State the number of months of the year when the average temperature is below 0°C. 

(ii) Estimate the annual temperature range in °C. 

(iii) Apart from temperature, outline one other climatic characteristic shown on the graph that indicates Arkhangelsk is located in an extreme environment.

Explain three ways in which people have adapted to the extremes of weather and climate in periglacial areas such as Arkhangelsk.

“Desertification is the main environmental risk for agriculture in hot deserts and semi-arid areas.” Discuss this statement, with reference to examples.

(i) Six months [1 mark]

(ii) 28 to 30 inclusive, or a range of -13°C (or -14°C) to +16°C

(iii) Award [1 mark] for one of the following:

• identifies no sunshine in December and January
• the number of wet days is high (over 20 in 4 months of the year)
• relatively low precipitation throughout the year.

Award [1 mark] for outlining an implication for people or the environment that shows why this can be regarded as extreme.

For example: “There is no sunshine in December [1 mark], which means even evergreen plants cannot photosynthesize at all [1 mark].”

Award [1 mark] for each adaptation and a further [1 mark] for an explanation that links this with periglacial weather and climate (should be specific about season, and not generalized).

If more than three adaptations are considered, accept only the first three.

A variety of responses are possible at different scales from individual to communities within a large urban area:

• clothing needs to be wind proof/insulated/layered [1 mark] as strong winds contribute to wind chill in winter months [1 mark]
• cars having extra heaters [1 mark] to stop diesel fuel freezing due to extreme cold in winter [1 mark]
• buildings on stilts [1 mark] to avoid potential issues with permafrost thaw in summer [1 mark]
• clearance of snow on roads/gritting of roads [1 mark] during winter months, snow and long periods of ice on roads [1 mark]
• extra use of lighting to work [1 mark] during winter when daylight is limited/absent [1 mark]
• some people may take vitamin D supplements [1 mark] in winter to make up for a lack of sunshine [1 mark]
• costs of adapting to such a wide range of conditions [1 mark] eg winter and summer clothing [1 mark].

Credit other valid adaptations and specific links to seasonal challenges.

For a simple list of “cold” adaptations award a maximum of [3 marks].

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

Desertification is the extensification or intensification of desert conditions and a major risk in many parts of the world today. Other environmental risks include salinization, flash floods, and saline intrusions. Some risks are linked (eg desertification could encourage irrigation and trigger salinization).

There are a number of ways to discuss the statement. One way is to compare desertification with the severity of other risks eg salinization. Another way is to discuss how the risk of desertification varies according to climate and wealth of different countries (eg Sahel and Gulf states), or between hot deserts and semi-arid areas.

For band D, candidates should describe the risk to agriculture of desertification and/or another environmental threat for named arid/semi-arid area(s) (may not distinguish at this level).

Band E should either provide much greater detail of how desertification affects agriculture in different areas (may contrast hot deserts and semi-arid areas) or evaluates the severity of at least one additional risk, such as salinization.

At band F, expect both elements.

Candidates had few problems in interpreting the given graph for parts (a)(i) and (ii) but in part (iii) there was often no link to explain why another climatic characteristic made it extreme for the environment or people.

Adaptation to weather extremes was answered adequately but linking it to the extreme weather in seasons was not done well, often being descriptive and lacking in detail.

There seemed to be few problems describing desertification and the problems for agriculture, albeit very superficially, but very few looked at any other environmental threats to agriculture risk, for example, salinization. Whether or not desertification is the main environmental risk was often ignored.