(i) Define the term urbanization.

(ii) Describe the changes in the distribution of millionaire cities as shown on the maps.

Explain three reasons for the movement of named economic activities within urban areas.

Examine the reasons why it is difficult to manage urban areas sustainably.

(i) Urbanization is the increasing percentage/proportion of a country’s population living in towns and cities. Accept alternative phrasing. Do not accept rural–urban migration.

(ii) Award [1 mark] each for:

• there are more millionaire cities in all continents
• major growth along coasts
• may identify regional clusters, eg, India, Japan
• makes a valid north–south contrast
• credit other valid points or attempt at quantification, eg, has risen from two to five in Australia, or uses phrasing to show very significant growth/more than doubled.

Possible economic activities include retail, services, manufacturing, leisure.

There are many possibilities:

• land values too high in CBD so shops/offices move to edge of town
• new attractions of new road/rail links attract a range of businesses
• business parks established in new areas with good accessibility
• brownfield site redevelopment for offices/shops may have advantages eg, cost
• enterprise zones/export processing zones have cost/benefits for light industries.

Award [1 mark] for each basic reason for movement (advantage should be clear) and [1 mark] for further explanation/exemplification. For example, services in Cardiff have relocated to the accessible Cardiff Gate business park [1 mark] which has much lower costs per square metre than the CBD [1 mark].

Award a maximum of [4 marks] if no economic activities are named.

Sustainability should be defined – good answers will acknowledge environmental/economic/social dimensions. Candidates may discuss aspects such as housing, population growth, pollution, transport, housing and employment. Contrasting case studies of sustainable urban management might be used. These may be drawn from high-income countries and low-income countries. Examples may include Curitiba, the London Olympics, Masdar City. Credit any valid example at any urban scale.

Reasons are likely to include:

• cost – eg, the cost of developing a new sustainable transport system, housing etc
• availability of money – this can operate at a household level/city government level eg, being able to afford solar panelling
• political will – corruption may be a problem in some locations/vote-catching/NIMBYism (people not wanting new developments such as a recycling scheme in their locality (“back-yard”))
• available technology – some debt-ridden cities may not be able to afford new forms of renewable energy, for example
• rapid population growth and rate of consumption of resources – over-consumption of resources as standards of living rise
• high population densities
• legislation – introduction of Agenda 21 statements
• waste output – encouraging people to re-use, recycle, reduce.

To access band D at least two reasons should be described.

At band E expect either a greater range or depth of reasons for management challenges (may offer contrasting examples) or some explicit examination of what sustainable management actually involves, and the challenge it brings.

At band F expect both.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

A substantial and worrying number of candidates could not define the term urbanization, often equating it merely with growth of cities and rural–urban migration.

The description of changes in distribution of millionaire cities was often well answered.

There were some good responses to this question, with candidates discussing suburbanization and gentrification. Weaker responses considered movement to/from large cities, including rural–urban migration, which is not relevant to movement within cities.

There were some very good responses regarding the sustainable management of urban areas, with case studies including Rio de Janeiro, Curitiba, and the London Olympics, showing a clear understanding of sustainability in cities, including diagrams, and an explicit examination of the challenges facing many cities. Weaker answers were often descriptive. Often, little attempt was made to define sustainability and as a consequence many answers degenerated into long-winded descriptions of recycling and reducing traffic in cities.