To what extent had Russia’s economy been modernized by 1914 under Alexander III and Nicholas II?

The question requires the that candidates consider the merits or otherwise of the suggestion that Russia had a modern economy by 1914. Candidates may argue that both Tsars continued the process of economic modernization begun by Alexander II. There could be discussion of policies to expand industry (Witte and Stolypin), expand the railways and stabilize the currency. Attempts were made to increase agricultural production by such policies as the reduction of the Poll Tax and Stolypin’s Agrarian Reforms, but production levels remained very low by 1914. When considering other areas, such as railways, candidates may point out that there was slow growth up to 1890 then rapid expansion, but Russia still lacked a system that covered the whole country. Russia was still behind other major powers in terms of production levels (steel production in 1910 was 3300 tons). Industries such as textiles (40% of industrial output) were important and industry relied heavily on foreign investment. Candidates may argue that while there was significant industrial growth, the economy remained unbalanced and reliant on a weak agricultural sector which was 70–80% of economic activity. Candidates’ opinions or conclusions will be presented clearly and supported by appropriate evidence.

The question required that candidates consider the merits or otherwise of the suggestion that Russia's economy had been modernized by 1914 under Alexander III and Nicholas II. There were some good responses to this question. However, some candidates tried to answer the question by mainly using material on the reign of Alexander II which they were unable to make relevant to the question.