With reference to the period up to 1914, discuss the economic developments that took place in Russia during the reigns of Alexander III and Nicholas II.

Candidates are required to offer a considered and balanced review of the economic developments that took place up to 1914. These may include attempts to expand industry and increase agricultural production, achieve currency stability and promote trade with other nations. Candidates may argue that although there were significant economic developments, Russia’s economy remained largely agricultural with low production levels. Despite attempts to stimulate production, for example the reduction in the Poll Tax and Stolypin’s Agrarian reforms, crop yields were still very low by 1912. Discussion of industrial developments that were encouraged by Witte, may include a commentary on levels of foreign investment, the growth of railways (in comparison to other major powers), the impact on production levels and the scale of change. There may be discussion of the extent to which Russia had developed a stable industrial economy by 1914 and the fact that agriculture remained the main economic activity for over 80 per cent of the population.