Compare and contrast the foreign policies of Khrushchev and Brezhnev.

The main focus here is change and continuity in the Soviet Union’s relations with other states under the two leaders. Some candidates may argue that overall there was continuity in that the overall goal of both leaders was to maintain the prestige of the Soviet Union. Differences tended to be how they approached that goal.

Indicative content

Comparisons

• Both sought better relations with the West, peaceful coexistence and detente. Both were willing to consider nuclear arms negotiations (Test Ban Treaty, 1963 and the SALT talks, 1970).
• Both were willing to use force to maintain Soviet security and used the Warsaw Pact to do this (Hungary in 1956 and Czechoslovakia in 1968).
• Both leaders had poor relations with China.
• Both had meetings with Western leaders.
• Both sought to extend influence in developing and Non-Aligned states.

Contrasts

• Their attitude to Germany and Berlin differed significantly. Khrushchev often raised Cold War tensions in this area, for example the 1958 Ultimatum and the building of the Berlin Wall in 1961. Brezhnev, on the other hand, resolved tensions by signing the 1970 Moscow Treaty and the 1972 Basic Treaty.
• Khrushchev’s actions in Cuba almost led to nuclear conflict, while the invasion of Afghanistan (1979) under Brezhnev led to worsening relations but did not escalate tension to the level of the Cuban Missile Crisis.

The above material is an indication of what candidates may elect to write about in their responses. However, the list is not exhaustive and no set answer is required.

Examiners are reminded of the need to apply the markbands that provide the “best fit” to the responses given by candidates and to award credit wherever it is possible to do so.

[20 marks]