“Napoleon’s domestic and foreign policies underwent major change after his coronation as Emperor in 1804.” Discuss.

Candidates will focus on Napoleon’s domestic and foreign policies before and after his coronation as Emperor and examine to what extent there was continuity and change in these policies before and after that event. Opinions and conclusions should be presented clearly and supported with appropriate evidence and sound argument. Candidates should be able to discuss continuity and change for both foreign and domestic policy and should not focus solely on one of these areas.

Indicative content

• Napoleon was crowned Emperor on 2 December 1804 in the presence of Pope Pius VII, famously taking the Crown from the hands of the Pope and crowning himself.
• Candidates could argue this question in several different ways. There are arguments that after 1804 Napoleon moved away definitively from being the inheritor of the Revolution, for example, the decision to re-establish an aristocracy and the growing opulence of the Imperial Court.
• In foreign policy, there are many instances of a more aggressive foreign policy after 1804. In 1805 the Italian Republic was replaced by the Kingdom of Italy, of which Napoleon made himself king, and Liguria and Parma were both annexed to France. In 1806, in the case of Germany, the Confederation of the Rhine was established under Napoleon’s leadership. In addition, the Batavian Republic was replaced by the Kingdom of Holland with Napoleon’s brother Louis being made king. There was also the invasion of Spain in May 1808, with another of Napoleon’s brothers, Joseph, being made king of Spain.
• Another point of view could be to suggest that his coronation did not really make much difference in that he had already moved away from the Revolution. Domestically, he had already been named First Consul for life in 1802 and had the right to choose his successor.
• Foreign policy, it might be argued, was already expansionist and already did more than merely defend the Revolution. Examples to support this view could include the French annexation of Piedmont and the reoccupation of Switzerland (Act of Mediation), which both took place in 1802.
• Although candidates may focus their arguments in terms of the extent to which Napoleon moved away from the ideals of the Revolution, this is just one possible line of argument. Candidates could also focus on discussing foreign and domestic policies, before and after the coronation, without direct reference to the ideals of the Revolution.

The above material is an indication of what candidates may elect to write about in their responses. However, the list is not exhaustive and no set answer is required.

Examiners are reminded of the need to apply the markbands that provide the “best fit” to the responses given by candidates and to award credit wherever it is possible to do so.

[20 marks]