With reference to two of the following countries: the Philippines, Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei, Cambodia, Vietnam, Indonesia, Burma, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, examine the factors that have helped and hindered their political development.

Candidates are expected to demonstrate a clear understanding of the conditions in which political developments took place. While some of those conditions may have been beneficial, others may have limited political development. Political development could include a discussion of the following: how these countries gained independence from a colonial power; the ways they created
a strong national identity; the establishment of democratic government and their relations with other countries in the region and/or the wider world. Factors that have helped or hindered this development could include conflict; the impact of the Cold War in the region; intervention from foreign powers; ethnic and religious diversity; extremist/radical groups; economic conditions and effective leadership. Cambodia and Singapore have been used as the examples below, but any combination of two of the listed countries is acceptable.

Indicative content

Cambodia

• Sihanouk declared independence in 1945.
• Partly because of the Vietnam War, the Khmer Rouge led by Pol Pot came to power in 1975. The years of Khmer Rouge rule resulted in genocide and an invasion by Vietnam in 1977/1978.
• In 1991 came the eventual withdrawal of Vietnamese troops and the establishment of the United Nations transitional Authority in Cambodia from 1992 to 1993. Reconstruction policies and actions were implemented.

Singapore

• British rule of Singapore continued after the Second World War although there was a gradual devolution of power.
• Singapore joined the Federation of Malaya but, in 1963, it was expelled. Singapore gained full independence in 1965 and was a founding member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) in 1967. In 1970, Singapore joined the Non-Aligned Movement.
• Race riots broke out throughout the 1960s undermining attempts to create national unity.
• Singapore’s political development was aided by their strong market economy and the leadership of Lee Kuan Yew.

The above material is an indication of what candidates may elect to write about in their responses. However, the list is not exhaustive and no set answer is required.

Examiners and moderators are reminded of the need to apply the markbands that provide the “best fit” to the responses given by candidates and to award credit wherever it is possible to do so.

[20 marks]