To what extent did Japan have a successful democratic parliamentary system of government by 1929?

Candidates will, in a considered and balanced way, review the extent to which Japan had successfully established a democratic system of government by 1929. Candidates may argue that although Japan was theoretically democratic, by 1929 democratic processes had been significantly undermined.

Successful democratic parliamentary system had been established

• The Japanese Diet had two houses and, the House of Representatives was directly elected by the people.
• Hara Takashi became the first commoner to serve as Prime Minister. He worked effectively with the different political institutions and with the military.
• Initially party politics flourished with a wide range of political parties that represented all elements of society.
• The General Election Law of 1925 granted universal male suffrage and consequently the electorate increased from 3 million to 14 million.

Failings and/or limitations to the establishment of democratic parliamentary democracy

• Hara had used electoral reform and electoral redistricting to ensure a seiyukai majority.
• The assassination of Prime Minister Hara in 1921 and a failed assassination attempt by radicals of Emperor Hirohito in 1923 led to instability.
• Women did not get the vote in the 1925 Election Law and they still had few legal rights.
• Changes to Japan’s political structure were banned by the Peace Preservation Law of 1925. In 1928, an amendment to it banned any political parties that the Communists had infiltrated.
• There was suppression of left wing activists throughout the 1920s. The Tokko was established to monitor socialist and communist activity.
• Politicians were generally perceived to be corrupt and seen to have little interest in the peasantry and workers.
• The inability of Taisho politicians to deal with the effects of the Great Depression (1929) also undermined parliamentary democracy.

The above material is an indication of what candidates may elect to write about in their responses. However, the list is not exhaustive and no set answer is required.

Examiners and moderators are reminded of the need to apply the markbands that provide the “best fit” to the responses given by candidates and to award credit wherever it is possible to do so.

[20 marks]