With reference to two Southeast Asian countries, to what extent did the Japanese occupation lead to the emergence of nationalism?

Candidates are required to offer a considered and balanced review of the extent to which Japanese occupation led to the emergence of nationalism in two Southeast Asian countries. Candidates could argue that nationalist movements were strong before the Second World War. Popular choices may be French Indochina and Indonesia. These two have been used as examples below.

Indicative content

Indonesia

• In 1927, Sukarno established the Partai Nasional Indonesia, PNI (Indonesian National Party). It opposed imperialism and gained support amongst young educated Indonesians who were frustrated at the limits they faced under Dutch rule.
• The party split during Sukarno’s imprisonment into two groups—one promoted mass agitation (Sukarno) and one focused on the educated elite (Hatta).
• In 1942, when the Japanese invaded the Dutch East Indies, Sukarno and Hatta were willing to support the Japanese and Sukarno gained control of a militia of 2 million men. By 1945, the Japanese allowed the creation of a quasi-legislature, which discussed the future of Indonesia as an independent state. Sukarno’s collaboration set up the basis for independence.
• Following the Japanese surrender Sukarno and Hatta declared Indonesian Independence and began to take control. When the Dutch attempted to regain control of Indonesia, Sukarno was able to use his militia to fight them.
• Sukarno’s imprisonment by the Dutch in 1948 led to international outrage and eventually the Dutch were forced to accept Indonesian Independence in 1949.

French Indochina

• In 1927, the Viet Nam Quoc Dan Dang (VNQDD) was formed and it led violent protests against the French. The VNQDD was crushed by the French authorities in 1930.
• Ho Chi Minh went on to create the Indochinese Communist Party, which gained significant peasant support in the 1930s.
• Cambodia and Laos had limited nationalist movements before the war. In Cambodia Son Ngoc Thanh had begun publishing the nationalist newspaper Nagaravatta. In Laos, the Lao Renovation Movement (Lao Nhay) was formed.
• Vichy French authorities continued to administer French Indochina during the Japanese occupation.
• Ho Chi Minh developed the Viet Minh in 1941 with the aim of fighting the French and the Japanese using guerrilla tactics. His methods proved to be highly successful. In Laos, many Laotians fought alongside French agents using guerrilla tactics. Vichy French authorities dealt with nationalist protests quickly and harshly throughout the war.
• Ho Chi Minh declared Vietnamese independence in September 1945 and King Sihanouk decreed an independent Kampuchea in the same year. However, both countries would have to fight for many years for full independence.

The above material is an indication of what candidates may elect to write about in their responses. However, the list is not exhaustive and no set answer is required.

Examiners and moderators are reminded of the need to apply the markbands that provide the “best fit” to the responses given by candidates and to award credit wherever it is possible to do so.

[20 marks]