To what extent was conservative opposition responsible for the failure of the Self-Strengthening Movement (1861–1894)?

Candidates must demonstrate a clear understanding of the ways and extent to which, conservative opposition was responsible for the failure of the Self-Strengthening Movement. Candidates may explain how other factors, such as regionalism, were responsible. Some candidates could challenge the assumption in the question, suggest that the movement was not a failure, and give examples of some successes.

Indicative content

Conservative opposition

• Empress Dowager Cixi (Tz’u-hsi) led the conservative faction. By 1884, she had removed Prince Gong (Kung), who had been a supporter of reform, from power.
• Conservative opposition would not support any reform that changed the social, political or economic structure of China.
• The conservative factions generally supported military developments, which were seen as necessary to defend China against the West. To an extent, they also supported economic developments. However, although they were happy to benefit financially from new emerging businesses they did not want economic reform.
• The Manchu court did not want foreigners involved in the Self-Strengthening process, which led to many initiatives being abandoned. These included Robert Hart’s attempts to give China a modern navy.

Other factors

• The Self-Strengthening process was highly regionalized. Regional leaders like Zeng Guofan (Tseng Kuo-fan), Li Hongzhang (Li Hung-chang) and Zuo Zongtang (Tso Tsung-t’ang) made significant military developments, such as the creation of arsenals and dockyards. However, these leaders acted independently and there was little coordination with other regions and
  central government.
• General problems such as bureaucratic inefficiency, nepotism, corruption and lack of understanding of modern concepts and practices among Confucian officials were also responsible for the movement’s failure. China also lacked a sense of national unity and the ideas of Confucianism often clashed with the concept of modernization.

The above material is an indication of what candidates may elect to write about in their responses. However, the list is not exhaustive and no set answer is required.

Examiners and moderators are reminded of the need to apply the markbands that provide the “best fit” to the responses given by candidates and to award credit wherever it is possible to do so.

[20 marks]