Examine the role of sea level changes in the formation of relict cliffs and raised beaches.

Examine the roles of different stakeholders in the management of one coastal margin affected by erosion or flooding.

Marks should be allocated according to the Paper 1 markbands (available under the "Your tests" tab > supplemental materials).

Sea levels have undergone significant changes over the last few thousand years, and these have had a significant impact on coastal landforms, resulting in coastlines of emergence (sea level fall) and submergence (sea level rise).

Possible applied themes (AO2) demonstrating knowledge and understanding (AO1):

• Relict cliffs and coastal cliffs that were formerly active/eroded, but are now above sea-level and are inactive. They may be degraded by sub-aerial processes (have a less-steep profile) and may be vegetated.
• Relict cliffs and raised beaches are features of an emerging coastline, where there has been a fall in relative sea level.
• Raised beaches (which may be erosional or depositional) are former wave-cut platforms in front of active cliffs, but are now “raised” above sea level; they may also be former beaches now above sea level.
• Coastal emergence, caused by a fall in relative sea level, may be caused by eustatic or isostatic processes, or both.
• Eustatic changes are often associated with climate change, causing melting (sea level rise), or expansion/freezing (sea level fall), of ice sheets; these tend to be world-wide changes.
• Isostatic changes may be caused by tectonic uplift of the land, or uplift caused by the removal of the weight of former ice sheets.
• Many coastlines, especially in previously glaciated regions, see the effects of both of these processes – isostatic uplift caused by the removal of the weight of ice sheets after melting, superimposed on eustatic changes in sea level; the causes are often difficult to disentangle.

Good answers may be well structured (AO4) and may additionally offer a critical evaluation (AO3). The formation could become complicated because of interactions between different eustatic and isostatic processes, eg sea level rise due to climate change may begin to drown isostatically uplifted areas. There may be many changes over time in relative sea levels.

For 5–6 marks, expect some weakly evidenced outlining of the role of sea level change in the formation of relict cliffs and/or raised beaches.

For 7–8 marks, expect a structured account that includes:

• either an evidenced explanation of the sometimes complex relationship between sea level change and formation cliffs and raised beaches in different places and time-scales
• or a discursive conclusion (or ongoing evaluation) grounded in geographical concepts and/or perspectives.

For 9–10 marks, expect both of these traits.

Marks should be allocated according to the Paper 1 markbands (available under the "Your tests" tab > supplemental materials).

Coastal margins may be affected by erosion and flooding. Rapid erosion of cliffs may cause significant impact on human activity, such as loss of settlements, infrastructure and agricultural land. Coastal flooding not only causes damage, but may also cause significant loss of life and injury.

Possible applied themes (AO2) demonstrating knowledge and understanding (AO1):

• Management should address either erosion or flooding of one coastal margin.
• The causes of erosion/flooding.
• The power and perspectives of different stakeholders, such as local peoples, tourists, local and national governments, and conservationists.
• Strategies vary between hard-engineering schemes, cliff-line stabilization and soft engineering, such as beach nourishment.
• Sea defenses to reduce flooding.
• Planning based on managed retreat of coastlines may also be considered.
• Management of patterns of land use.
• The effectiveness of strategies may be judged on other factors, such as aesthetic quality, cost, displacement of people, conservation of wetlands and wildlife, such as on coastal marshes. Also, the impacts on peoples and communities in other areas along the coast.

Good answers may be well structured (AO4) and may additionally offer a critical evaluation (AO3) of the roles or power of the stakeholders. Another approach is to examine their different perspectives.

For 5–6 marks, expect some weakly evidenced outlining of a coastal management strategy, possibly with implied stakeholders, in order to combat either flooding or erosion

For 7–8 marks, expect a structured account that includes:

• either an evidenced explanation of a management strategy to combat either flooding or erosion, with stakeholders roles explained
• or a discursive conclusion (or ongoing evaluation) grounded in geographical concepts and/or perspectives.

For 9–10 marks, expect both of these traits.

If both erosion and flooding are written about, only the first one mentioned is to be credited.

The role of sea level change on the formation of relict cliffs and raised beaches was not understood well. Few answers referred to isostatic and eustatic changes.

This was well answered with an effective use of case studies but more was needed on the role of stakeholders which was poorly understood despite good knowledge of coastal margin management. Some candidates discussed river flooding and not coastal flooding, especially when using Bangladesh as a case study.