Outline two characteristics of the informal sector.

Outline the location of the informal sector in urban areas.

Explain how urban stress might result from environmental factors. 

Explain how urban stress might result from social factors.

Examine the causes and effects of the movement of retailing in urban areas to new locations.

Award [1] for each characteristic outlined.

Possibilities include, but are not limited to:

• unregulated/non-tax-paying
• semi-legal/illegal
• small scale
• lays out the goods on the street.

Award [1] for each characteristic outlined.

Possibilities include:

• often situated at the roadside/people’s homes/ near tourist attractions/hotels/restaurants
• located in areas of informal housing/shanty towns
• concentrated in the CBD/at major intersections/transport hubs.

Award [1] for identification of a factor and a further [2] for explanation of how this might lead to urban stress.

Environmental factors might include depletion of green space, noise and congestion, atmospheric pollution, pollution of water and soil through waste disposal.

For example: Environmental factors include the depletion of green spaces [1], which will result in loss of biodiversity and wildlife habitats [1] and might increase the urban heat island effect [1].

Award [1] for identification of a factor and a further [2] for explanation of how this might lead to urban stress.

Social factors might include: poor quality housing, high crime rates and deprivation.

For example: Concentration of people in poor-quality housing [1] leads to overcrowding [1] and excessive demand on urban services/water/sewage [1].

Most movement of economic activity takes place as a result of movement from the CBD and other inner city areas towards the suburbs and rural–urban fringe. However, urban regeneration and development of brownfield sites can also lead to movement towards deprived inner city areas.

Possible reasons for movement might include:

• relative land values: high in CBD and inner city; movement of space-consuming activities such as retail parks
• movement of population: suburbanization / availability of market and of workforce in suburbs / decline of population
• transport: good accessibility (road, rail and airports] / accessibility to local and more distant markets / high levels of congestion.

Possible effects of movement might include:

• spiral of decline of retailing and poverty in inner areas
• urban sprawl and loss of countryside to urban development
• increase in land values, congestion and pollution in rural–urban fringe
• political pressure for development of retail parks on brownfield sites
• gentrification.

Good answers should examine a range of economic, social, environmental and political causes and effects of movements of retailing.

At band D, responses are likely to be descriptive accounts of the causes and effects of the movement of retailing.

At band E, there should either be a greater explanation of a range of causes and effects, or some examination of the diversity within (limits of) retailing.

At band F, expect both.

Marks should be awarded according to the Paper 2 markbands (available under the "Your tests" tab > supplemental materials).