State and briefly outline what environmental problem A and environmental problem B could be.

Using one named example, briefly explain one cause and two consequences of an international conflict related to freshwater.

“Natural factors are always more important than human factors in causing a river flood.” Discuss this statement with reference to one named example.

In each case, award [1] for stating a valid problem and [1] for a relevant outline.

Possible answers could include:

• groundwater problems – excessive use can cause rapid depletion of available supplies/subsidence of ground
• salinization – increasing concentration of salts in upper layers of soils
• pollution – irrigation run-off carries farm waste into rivers
• eutrophication – irrigation water washes fertilizers/nitrates into water bodies.

Credit any other reasonable point, such as leaching or soil erosion.

For the example named, award up to [2] for the cause and [2+2] for two consequences.

The most likely cause might be: two countries both in need of limited water supplies [1] and gives a detail, eg population sizes/different demands/arid climate/boundary dispute etc [1].

Possible consequences could be:

• treaties/international agreement [1] and gives a detail eg date [1]
• escalation of international conflict [1] and gives a detail eg political repercussions [1]
• one country builds a dam to maximize its supply [1] and gives a detail eg date of construction, or ecological/economic harm downstream, or navigation issues [1]
• a substitution strategy eg desalinization [1] and gives a detail [1].

For example: Sudan and Egypt had a conflict over the Nile river, as both are in need of limited water supplies [1] to satisfy the demands of the growing populations [1]. This conflict resulted in the Nile treaty [1] in 1959 [1]. Since then the Egyptians have tried to use desalinization to meet their water needs [1]. This uses a process called reverse osmosis to remove salt and produce freshwater [1].

Award up to a maximum of [4] if inappropriate or no named example.

Two separate consequences are needed; do not credit multiple problems associated with dam construction.

If more than one example is used, mark only the first.

A river flood should be clearly identified and located. It is not necessary to identify an actual river, as long as a river flood is identified and located; eg Bangladesh floods in 2005.

An account of the causes of a particular flood on the named river should be detailed. Both natural and human factors should be included (case study dependent) and good answers should include some specific details that refer to that river flood (not generalizations).

Likely human causes include urbanization, deforestation etc.

Physical causes may include frontal rainfall, extreme weather, steep slopes, etc.

Good answers may discuss how human and natural factors may interrelate: land use changes can exacerbate a natural tendency towards flashy hydrographs. A combination of urbanization and high-intensity rainfall may be the reason why extreme flooding has affected a place.

At band D, expect reference to a named river flood and a description of the natural and human causes of the flood.

At band E, expect either a more in-depth explanation of the natural and human causes, or some critical discussion of the relative importance of natural and human factors.

At band F, expect both.