(i) Outline the main erosional process that accounts for the feature shown in the photograph. 

(ii) Identify and explain the formation of one water-formed feature commonly found in a hot, arid environment.

Explain how two factors (other than heat) restrict human settlement in hot, arid environments.

“Some human activities in extreme environments are more sustainable than others.” Discuss this statement, with reference to one or more types of extreme environment.

(i) Wind/Aeolian (or abrasion) [1].

Softer rock strata are removed by sand blasting/abrasion [1] leaving the more resistant layers.

(ii) Award [1] for identification of any valid water-formed feature eg wadi, mesa, butte, canyon, inselberg, pediment, alluvial fan/bahada, salt lake/playa.

Do not credit oasis.

Award [1] for a valid description or sketch of the landform if provided and up to [3] for a valid explanation.

For example, wadi [1]. A dry, steep-sided river bed [1] formed by water erosion/downcutting through the rock layers [1]. Flash floods/ephemeral streams have high energy [1].

Award [1] for each factor and a further [1] for a link to human settlement.

For example, remoteness [1] means that it is very difficult to provide services to people [1].

Possible factors include: inaccessibility, remoteness, lack of water, possibility of salinization with irrigation, perceived infertility of soils, increasing desertification.

Responses may either look at a range of activities in one extreme environment or a narrower range of activities across two or more extreme environments.

Extreme environments are generally considered to be very fragile environments and largely inhospitable. However, they do provide numerous opportunities for economic activities (mining, tourism, agriculture), settlement, etc.

Possible themes include:

• in cold environments, governments have to carefully balance economic and environmental agendas, eg the state of Alaska has to balance the energy needs of the USA (further exploration and production) with the requirement for conservation and environmental management
• possible conflicts may exist between tourism, wildlife movement and the transport of oil; or with the fragility of the permafrost (insulation, oil infrastructure)
• in arid environments, the focus of sustainability could be agriculture or mineral extraction, eg uranium extraction in Niger
• tourism in alpine areas.

Good answers may progress beyond simply agreeing or rejecting the statement and may discuss the validity of the statement with reference to different strands of sustainability (economic/social/environmental). Another approach might be to discuss how sustainability could be dependent on factors other than environmental challenges, such as access to capital (for irrigation, air conditioning etc).

For band D, expect some description of the impacts of human activity in one or more extreme environments (sustainability may not be explicit).

At band E, expect either more detailed explanation of the sustainability/impacts of human activities in one or more extreme environments or a structured discussion of what is meant by sustainability in this context.

At band F expect both of these elements.

Marks should be allocated according to the markbands.

(i) Some candidates had difficulty in identifying the relevant erosional process: wind/abrasion.

(ii) Many candidates could name a water-formed feature (wadi or canyon were the most common) but few could give detailed explanations of the formation. A description, or sketch, of the water-formed landform was also required.

Straightforward question, but some responses lacked full development to be awarded full marks.

Quite well answered, with reference to a range of activities such as agriculture, tourism or mineral extraction. In many answers the concept of sustainability remained implicit.