Discuss one or more factors influencing by-standerism.

Refer to the paper 2 assessment criteria when awarding marks. These can be found under the “Your tests” tab > supplemental materials.

The command term “discuss” requires candidates to offer a considered review of one or more factors influencing by-standerism.

Factors influencing by-standerism may include, but are not limited to:

• diffusion of responsibility
• normative social influence (conformity)
• cultural considerations
• costs/rewards of helping behaviour
• dispositional characteristics.

Relevant studies may include, but are not limited to:

• Latane and Darley’s (1970; 1968) studies of unresponsive by-stander
• Bateson and Darley’s (1973) study on the role of situational and dispositional factors
• Piliavin’s (1969) study of helping behavior and the costs/rewards of helping
• Oliner and Oliner’s (1988) study of dispositional factors in by-standerism.

Critical discussion may include, but is not limited to:

• methodological and ethical considerations in the research on by-standerism
• how the findings of research have been interpreted and applied
• implications of the findings
• assumptions and biases
• areas of uncertainty
• comparison with alternative factors.

This was also a popular question. Overall, responses reflected that candidates understood by-standerism and the classic studies that illustrate the concept. Most who attempted this question did fairly well.

In the majority of cases, reasons for by-standerism were identified, though not always fully explained/described. Weaker responses tended to focus more on presenting relevant studies. In addition, evaluation tended to be more of the strengths and weaknesses of the studies, rather than focusing on by-standerism per se.