Discuss the development of empathy and/or theory of mind.

Refer to the paper 2 assessment criteria when awarding marks. These can be found under the “Your tests” tab > supplemental materials.

The command term “discuss” requires candidates to offer a considered review of the development of empathy and/or theory of mind. Candidates may discuss only the development of a theory of mind or only the development of empathy or may discuss the development of both of them. These approaches are equally acceptable.

The theory of mind is the ability to understand and attribute a particular mental state to a certain behaviour. Empathy is a similar concept but slightly different in that it refers to the ability to infer another's emotional state.

Research relevant to the development of a theory of mind may include, but is not limited to:

• Wellman et al. (2003)
• Flavell, Miller and Miller (1993)
• Wellman and Gelman (1992)
• Wellman (1990).

Research relevant to the development of empathy may include, but is not limited to:

• Birch (2016)
• Van der Mark et al. (2002)
• Damon and Hart (1992)
• Damon (1988).

Relevant areas of discussion may include, but are not limited to:

• the social and cultural influences (e.g. Astington and Gopnik, 1991; Dunn et al., 1991; Harris, 1989)
• the biological influences (e.g. Saxe and Powell, 2006; Gallagher et al., 2003)
• the deficits in social insight, for example in autism spectrum disorders (e.g. Baron-Cohen, 2001; Frith, 1994; Leslie and Frith, 1988)
• the presence or absence of empathy or theory of mind in non-human animals (e.g. Penn and Povinelli, 2007; Heyes, 1998; Premack and Woodruff, 1978).

Responses referring to animal research are acceptable as long as they are linked to human behaviour.

Responses referring to cognitive development are not acceptable and should not earn marks unless specifically tied to the development of theory of mind/empathy.

Development can be both positive and negative, so content concerning factors that hinder the development of Theory of Mind and/or empathy are acceptable and should be awarded marks.

Very strong candidates answered this question particularly well, while candidates who were not as well prepared tended to do quite poorly here. Strengths included understanding the difference between empathy and theory of mind, and the ability to couple that with relevant studies (again speaking in terms of strong candidates). The weakness of some candidates was totally misunderstanding the question and writing responses on other topics in Developmental psychology.