To calculate chi-squared, expected values must first be calculated. Assuming that there is no association between the two species, calculate the expected number of quadrats in which both species would be present, showing your working.

State the number of degrees of freedom for this test to determine the critical value of chi-squared.

What could account for this distribution of height in a population?

[Source: Graph adapted from Six Minutes http://sixminutes.dlugan.com/good-public-speaker-average/]

A. Gene linkage

B. Dominant alleles

C. Independent assortment

D. Multiple genes

Autosomal genes are located in chromosomes that are not sex chromosomes. The inheritance of autosomal genes is affected by whether the genes are linked or unlinked. Explain the two types of inheritance, using the example of parents that are heterozygous for two genes A and B.

William Bateson and Reginald Punnett used the sweet pea (Lathyrus odoratus) in genetics studies in the early 20^th century. Pure-breeding plants that produced purple flowers and long pollen grains were crossed with pure-breeding plants that produced red flowers and round pollen grains. The resulting offspring all produced purple flowers and long pollen grains. Two of the F₁ generation plants were crossed. The table shows the ratio of phenotypes in the F₂ generation. 

What is an explanation for these experimental results?

A. Purple flowers and long pollen grains are dominant and the alleles have assorted independently.

B. The genes for flower colour and pollen shape are linked and all plants producing long pollen grains are recombinants.

C. The genes for flower colour and pollen shape are linked and all plants producing red flowers are recombinants.

D. Plants producing purple flowers and round pollen grains arose through crossing over.

The cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) is a large cat found in Africa. It has been discovered that organs could be transferred between any two individuals without rejection of the organ.

What is the probable reason for this?

A. Cheetahs have poor reproductive success.

B. Cheetahs have high heterozygosity.

C. Cheetahs have a large gene pool.

D. Cheetahs have a small gene pool.

Explain the reasons for variation in human height.

The graph shows the relationship between mass at birth and the percentage that die shortly after birth for Scottish Blackface lambs.

[Source: Dwyer, C.M., Conington, J., Corbiere, F., Holmoy, I.H., Muri, K., Nowak, R., Rooke, J., Vipond, J. and Gautier,
J.-M., 2016. Invited review: Improving neonatal survival in small ruminants: science into practice. Animal, 10(3),
pp. 449–459.]

What type of selection for the lambs is shown in the graph?

A. Disruptive selection, as there is a drop in mortality at intermediate birth masses

B. Stabilizing selection, as lambs with low or high birth mass are less likely to survive

C. Directional selection, as lambs with a high birth mass have high mortality

D. There is no evidence in the graph of selection, as survival frequency is not shown

When a cell divides by meiosis, chiasmata can be observed. Which are features of chiasmata?

I. They are points of attachment between chromatids of non-homologous chromosomes.

II. They occur during meiosis I.

III. They increase stability of bivalents.

A. I and II only

B. I and III only

C. II and III only

D. I, II and III

Explain how speciation occurs, including the different processes of isolation and selection.

In fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster), grey bodies (b⁺) are dominant to black bodies (b) and normal wings (vg⁺) are dominant to vestigial wings (vg). Homozygous vestigial winged, black bodied flies were crossed with individuals that were heterozygous for both traits. 2300 individuals were counted and the phenotypes observed were recorded as shown.

965 normal wings, grey bodies
944 vestigial wings, black bodies
206 vestigial wings, grey bodies
185 normal wings, black bodies

Which statement is valid?

A. The predicted phenotypic ratio was 9:3:3: 1.

B. There is independent assortment of wings but not body colour.

C. The expected number of vestigial winged, grey bodied flies was 575.

D. The traits are on different chromosomes.

Explain gene linkage and its effects on inheritance.

Describe the changes that occur in gene pools during speciation.

Three-spined stickleback fish (Gasterosteus aculeatus) vary in the number of armour plates. The graph shows the frequency of individuals with low, partial or complete plating in a three-spined stickleback population living in Kennedy Lake, Vancouver Island, Canada.

[Source: Reprinted from Current Biology, 24, Marchinko, K.B., Matthews, B., Arnegard, M.E., Rogers, S.M. and Schluter, D., Maintenance of a Genetic Polymorphism with Disruptive Natural Selection in Stickleback.
2014.  pp.1289–1292 with permission from Elsevier.]

Which type of natural selection could result in this pattern of variation in the population?

A. Disruptive

B. Directional

C. Stabilizing

D. Convergent

When the data in the table were used to calculate chi-squared, the calculated value was 0.056. The critical value is 3.84. Explain the conclusion that can be drawn from the calculated and critical values for chi-squared.