“The Self-Strengthening Movement (1861–1894) was a complete failure.” Discuss.

The question requires that candidates offer a considered and balanced review of the statement that the Self-Strengthening Movement (1861–1894) was a complete failure. Consequences of the movement may extend beyond the timeframe but they must be clearly linked to the movement. Candidates may refer to the fact that the Self-Strengthening Movement proved to be short-lived, ending in a coup by powerful conservative opponents led by Cixi. It was generally unsuccessful as new developments were loyal to provincial rather than national interests. Chinese military defeat by France and Japan proved that the Self-Strengthening Movement failed to strengthen Qing rule or China’s military power. Due to the Qing court weaknesses, foreign powers claimed different parts of China as spheres of influence. However, there were some successes, key figures associated with the movement such as Zeng Guofan and Li Hongzhang initiated successful developments in shipbuilding, armament production and maritime customs services. The creation of a foreign ministry also helped centralize communications between the Qing government and foreign powers. Candidates may agree, partly agree or disagree with the statement.