Analyse ways in which global trade flows can affect the size of national carbon footprints.

“Cultural changes caused by globalization have affected urban and rural places equally.” Discuss this statement.

Marks should be allocated according to the paper 3 part A markbands. These can be found under the “Your tests” tab > supplemental materials.

Global trade flows encompass movements of food, consumer goods, digital information sales (data) and touristic movements. National carbon footprint sizes are affected by both production and consumption of goods and services. In the context of global shift of industry, views differ on whether the carbon emissions created by the production of an item should be included as part of the footprint size for the producer or consumer country.

Possible ways in which global trade flows affect national carbon footprint sizes:

• Countries manufacturing high volumes of goods for export (e.g. China) have large carbon footprints. 
• Countries rearing large numbers of cattle or growing large amounts of crops (e.g. palm oil) may have high carbon/methane emissions.
• Countries importing large volumes of fossil fuels subsequently use these fuels, emitting carbon.
• The emissions created by the transport of goods may contribute to the national footprint of the country where the company is domiciled/headquartered.
• Data flows can have surprisingly high footprints (e.g. bitcoin trading).

Good answers may apply (AO2) a wider range of knowledge and understanding (AO1) in a well-structured way (AO4). One approach might be to provide a structured systematic analysis of how different global flows/movements (different commodities, people, data) can all result in increased carbon emission sizes. Another approach might be to analyse, in turn, direct and indirect responsibility for carbon emissions (e.g. questioning whether the producer or consumer of goods is responsible).

For 4–6 marks, expect some weakly evidenced outlining of one or two different ways in which trade flows affect carbon footprints (most likely the analysis of two different types/aspects of trade flows).

For 7–9 marks, expect a structured, evidenced analysis of:

• either a range (two or more) of different global trade flows / economic activities
• or complex national footprints in a global context (imports, exports, offshoring etc.).

For 10–12 marks, expect both of these traits.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Marks should be allocated according to the paper 3 part B markbands. These can be found under the “Your tests” tab > supplemental materials. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

The cultural changes brought by globalization include changes to society, language and the landscape. Theories of cultural imperialism/Americanization/McDonaldization view the commodification of everyday life as a highly important cultural change. Urban and rural places in high-income, emerging and low-income countries alike may be exposed to different global flows and interactions, including tourism, trade, migration and social media. However, the degree of influence and its effects varies according to context.

Possible applied themes (AO2) include knowledge and understanding (AO1) of how:

• diaspora populations increase cultural diversity in places where they have become established, typically urban areas [Guide 5.2]
• TNCs have exported cultural traits globally, including music, language, food and clothing. These changes may penetrate rural areas, not just urban areas [Guide 5.2]
• a digital divide between urban and remote rural areas may limit the latter’s exposure to global flows [Guide 4.3]
• some rural areas are home to groups who voluntarily opt out of globalization and prefer local sourcing of food etc. [Guide 5.3]
• entire countries may be disconnected in some ways from global interactions: both their urban and rural areas may be resistant to cultural change as a result [Guide 5.3]
• economic development may mean the differences between rural and urban core areas lessen in any case, which complicates the analysis [Guide 5.1].

Good answers may synthesize (AO3a) three or more of the above (or other) themes in a well-structured (AO4) way.

Good answers may additionally offer a critical evaluation (AO3b) of the statement that discusses the processes of cultural change in contrasting contexts (at different stages of development, or differing degrees of isolation). Another approach might be to discuss the extent of cultural change experienced by different places with varying power to resist particular global flows and interactions. A good discussion may conclude with a substantiated final judgement on the overall degree to which the statement is true given the diversity of different urban/rural places/types.

For 5–8 marks, expect weakly evidenced outlining of two or three relevant themes.

For 9–12 marks, expect:

• either a structured synthesis that links together several well-evidenced themes from the Guide
• or a critical conclusion (or ongoing evaluation) informed by geographical concepts and/or perspectives.

For 13–16 marks, expect both of these traits.

This was the most popular question. The strongest answers typically employed three lines of analysis by focusing on (i) productive activities, (ii) the transport of goods and (iii) the possibility of good governance (actions to reduce emissions). At the top end, candidates recognized that carbon footprint measurement becomes difficult on account of the complexity of global supply chains. They understood that the carbon footprint of an iPhone, for example, is shared between many different countries where parts have been sourced from.

In the middle of the attainment range, candidates typically wrote more generally about the carbon emissions associated with a range of different types of activity or transport, including shipping and air traffic. Many struggled to make explicit links between these movements and the carbon footprints of particular countries. Instead, such answers typically asserted the container shipping has led to an increase in the size of carbon footprints for all countries. The weakest answers failed to maintain a sustained focus on carbon footprints sizes and drifted into long descriptions of the problems created by acid rain or transboundary pollution. A surprising number used 'ecological footprint' and 'carbon footprint' as interchangeable phrases throughout their entire answer. 

This would be a good question for centres to make use of when preparing future classes for their examinations. Candidates could work together in groups to identify relevant and irrelevant information for inclusion in a model answer to this question.

The majority of candidates showed good understanding of the concept of culture and were able to apply their ideas in a relevant and meaningful way. The distinction between urban and rural places was clearly appreciated by all but a tiny minority, as might be expected given the importance and centrality of this taxonomy in the discipline of Human Geography. The question provided many opportunities for candidates to apply knowledge from across the width of their course. The most common route involved firstly writing about high levels of cultural diversity in cities due to the presence of transnational corporations and migrants. As a counterpoint to this, most candidates then argued that rural places do not experience cultural changes due to their isolation, or perhaps experience lesser cultural changes linked with the gradual diffusion of shrinking world technologies into rural areas. The best answers took care to distinguish between different types of rural place (in low-income or high-income countries, for instance, or more accessible and remote rural regions). A few answers had interesting things to say about the cultural conservatism of rural societies in some developed countries, especially the USA.

Given that this was the most popular question on the paper, it is very pleasing to see the overwhelming majority of candidates thoughtfully applying a well-chosen range of themes to the question being asked. As per the assessment objectives, essay questions are meant to provide a novel and unexpected context for the application of knowledge and understanding.