Briefly describe two main features of the pattern of the gas and oil extraction sites shown on the map.

Outline one physical reason why permafrost causes challenges for the industries shown on the map.

Explain three possible conflicts over the use of cold environments (such as the Arctic) for mineral extraction.

Award [1] for each valid feature.

Possibilities include:

• Two major concentrations (in Russian Federation, and Canada and USA / Alaska).
• Often found close to coastline but also penetrating inland in Russia / Canada.
• Found inside and outside the Arctic Circle / north and south of the Arctic Circle
• Not found at/beside the North Pole.
• Few in the ocean(s) – Arctic and Atlantic but not Pacific.
• Major concentrations in northern North America, and northern Eurasia / Europe / Asia
• Country with the greatest number is the Russian Federation.

Do not credit just a list of countries.

Award [1] for a valid physical reason and [1] for further development or explanation using applied knowledge of extreme environments.

Heat from the extraction process / building of settlements/infrastructure/pipelines can cause thawing of the permafrost [1], which can lead to subsidence [1].

Other possibilities include:

• Frozen ground [1] drilling can cause frictional heat which can melt the permafrost [1]. (Do not accept it is too hard to drill through.)
• Pipelines can fracture in extreme cold [1], leading to the expense of heating the pipes / raising them above the permafrost layer [1].
• Frost heave [1] means piles for pipelines are buried deep to avoid mass movement [1].

These should relate directly to mineral extraction and not to global climate change causing melting of the ice.

Award [1] for a conflict related to mineral extraction and [1] for further development or explanation using applied knowledge of extreme environments.

For example: There may be loss of the unique ecosystems due to drilling and infrastructure construction [1]; tundra species are fragile/highly vulnerable to change [1].

Other possibilities include:

• Loss of indigenous cultures due to increasingly lucrative jobs in the mining industries.
• Resource nationalism – conflicting claims between competing countries.
• Protected wildlife areas versus further oil drilling.
• Presence of a large number of military bases – future unrest in area – loss of sea passage for tankers.