Outline how global rates of extinction have changed over time.

Ecocentrics recognise that all species have an intrinsic value.

Explain the strengths and weaknesses of using intrinsic value when making decisions about development and conservation.

Environmental value systems may be seen as having both inputs and outputs as shown in the diagram below:

As a society develops over time from an original pioneer population, various influences may have caused changes in their common value systems and decisions.

With reference to energy sources in a developed country (MEDC), discuss how historical changes in internal and external factors have influenced their environmental value systems and decisions on energy supply.

global rates of extinction have been relatively constant over long periods;
...and relatively low as extinction was balanced by rates of speciation;
there have been major peaks / 5 mass extinctions with unusually high extinction rates;
... associated with relatively sudden changes in natural global cycles eg ice age/volcanic activity/plate tectonics;
...or catastrophic events eg, Asteroid impact;
…most recent/current peak is anthropogenic / 6th mass extinction due to human causes;
eg hunting/urbanisation/global warming/habitat destruction.

[4 max]

Definition [1 max]:
intrinsic value of a species refers to its aesthetic/ethical/spiritual/ecological/intangible importance;

The use of detailed examples of species to support the answers should be credited in the EoI, not as a marking point.
A definition is not required and may be found within the rest of the answer. 

Strengths:
attaching intrinsic value to species that have no economic value can prevent them being overlooked in decision making;
deep ecologists argue that all species have rights and attributing intrinsic value supports this principle;
…and prevent collapse of ecosystems/loss of biodiversity/aesthetic degradation;
Intrinsic value is likely to promote ecosystem/in situ conservation so preserving whole habitats and many species;
public perception of intrinsic value is often crucial to the success of conservation efforts;
some argue that all species have rights and their intrinsic value needs to be considered;
a wide variety of ecosystems can be conserved as each species has intrinsic value rather than just charismatic species;
educating people with respect to intrinsic value will encourage people to respect even species considered a pest which would help in conservation efforts;

Weaknesses:
Decisions usually have an economic aspect and intrinsic value has no economic value;
intrinsic value is not recognised by some value systems/ anthropocentric / technocentric causing conflicts in decision making;
intrinsic value given to a species may vary amongst social groups according to their aesthetic/ethical/spiritual values / different tribal groups have different totems;
animal rights activists/environmental NGOs may hinder economically important projects (animal husbandry/testing/construction of buildings) on the ground of species' intrinsic value; applying the ideals associated with intrinsic value may overlook significant human needs (e.g. where human rights may be overlooked / spread of disease/pest organisms)." 

Award [4 max] if only strengths, or only weaknesses are given.

[6 max]

Please note: although "quality of expression" marking is no longer used in exams, this question from a past syllabus may still be useful for student practice.

Early demographic/pioneer stages [4 max]

Influences on EVS:
in early demographic/pioneer stages there is heavy dependence on natural environment that may lead to ecocentric values / valuing spiritual/aesthetic importance of environment;
... and small populations would inevitably promote ecocentric values of small/localised community projects;
…or, with the abundance of natural resources, may lead to cornucopian/anthropocentric values;

Influences on energy decisions:
lack of technology would limit energy choices to those that are simple/readily available (e.g. biomass/animal power for transport/small scale water mills/windmills);
spiritual values may prevent use of some potential resources (e.g. sacred woodlands);

Opinion/conclusion/evaluation:
Overall, at this stage sources would be renewable/sustainable / cause little long-term damage to environment. 

Mid-demographic stages [4 max]

Influences on EVS:
with agricultural/economic/industrial development dependence shifted toward technology;
…leading to a more technocentric/cornucopian value system seeing technology providing all the solutions;

Influences on energy decisions:
Fossil fuels then become a popular choice because technology for extraction is available;
…and they are effective/cheap ways of providing power for technological developments e.g. steam/combustion engines;
…and they provided energy security/rapid economic growth/competitive advantage for many countries;
World War research into nuclear weaponry provided platform for development of nuclear energy;

Opinion/conclusion/evaluation:
Cornucopian value system tends to place economic growth over environmental damage;
Increased use of fossil fuels brought greater wealth/welfare to communities;
…but began causing long-term environmental damage;
...and allowed for large-scale developments no longer under local control disempowering local communities. 

Later demographic stages [4 max]

Influences on EVS:
as environmental damage/disasters/media reports became more evident ecocentric values became more popular;
green politics/environmental NGOs actively promoted the increase in these values;
In context of perceived need for economic growth, popularity of ecological management values became more popular;

Influences on energy choices:
because of widespread environmental damage/limited lifespan of fossil fuel use, alternative energy sources were sought after;
these energy sources needed to be renewable/”clean” e.g. hydrological/nuclear/wind/solar etc;
advances in technology made alternative energy sources an achievable goal;
global agreements/incentives also motivated this shift toward alternative energies;

Opinion/conclusion/evaluation:
these recent developments will reduce impacts on the environment / increase sustainability;
…and allow for more small-scale/locally supplied energy in keeping with ecocentric ideals;
…and still allow for growth in wealth/welfare of population. 

Since the "discuss" command term is employed in this question, full credit should be limited to responses that contain some reflective components by candidate as exemplified under the "opinion/evaluation/conclusion" headings. Such comments are acceptable at the end or throughout the response.

Award [5 max] where there is no such "opinion/evaluation/conclusion" comment.

A named country is not required.

[8 max]

Expression of ideas [2 max]

Many candidates focused their answer on the last few hundred years and stated that extinction rates are increasing, usually outlining a reasonable cause. Stronger answers also mentioned historic mass extinctions with a variety of causes.

The candidates found gaining 2 or 3 marks relatively straightforward. The understanding of intrinsic value was generally well understood. Most candidates could link the concept of intrinsic value to conservation and development. But finding more than one strength and weakness proved to be tough for everyone except the very strong candidates.

The candidates approached this answer with the concept of the dynamic nature of resources. A few did not mention energy sources at all but generally they did. Once the candidate had determined the energy source/s they then related to MEDC. The majority of candidates elected to name a specific country to help guide their answer. The mark scheme was flexible enough to allow the candidates to focus on only two stages of change or they could mention more. Most candidates gave points on the changes from a fossil fuel energy hungry country to renewable energy sources.