Using examples, explain the strengths and weaknesses of the concept of food miles.

“Global interactions are mainly driven by the actions of transnational corporations (TNCs).” Discuss this statement.

Food miles can be defined as a measure of the distance food travels from its source to the consumer. This can be given either in units of actual distance or of energy consumed during transport.

The strengths of the concept include drawing awareness to the extreme distance travelled by some produce, thereby empowering consumers to make informed choices. This can be linked with broader concerns with carbon footprint size and ecological footprint size, especially in the context of air freight. Expected examples are food journeys that appear excessive, especially when produce that is also locally available is being shipped across continents (for example, south American asparagus flown to the UK, or similar examples). Allow a broad interpretation of “food”, for example, credit discussion of bottled water from Fiji being shipped to Europe and USA.

A critical explanation of the concept of food miles ought to also recognize it is a crude concept with many weaknesses. Distance travelled is only one footprinting measure. Locally produced food can use excessive energy inputs too, for example, hot-houses. It is hard to quantify food miles for processed or prepared foods with multiple ingredients. Rejecting food from distant places impacts on farmers’ livelihoods (and many fair trade products have high food miles attached to them).

An account that addresses the costs and benefits of long-distance food sourcing, rather than the concept of food miles (that is, the notion that distance is a reliable proxy for energy consumption/a benchmark for ethical consumerism), may reach the border of band C/D. Other misinterpretations may be marked in a similarly positive way, provided “food miles” is the clear focus of the answer, and the examples provided.

At band D, expect some strengths and weaknesses to have been identified and explained using examples, but do not expect balance. For band E there should be proper consideration of weaknesses as well as strengths, that is, a critical explanation of the concept of food miles has been offered.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

TNCs are key actors who spread consumerism [Guide 5.2] and also build global production networks through practices such as outsourcing [Guide 3.3 and 4.2]. Their primary motive is profit-making which provides a strong driving force, as the statement suggests. It is hard to imagine a form of globalization without global capitalism and TNCs are arguably globalization’s “architects”: the financial flows they generate are of primary importance [Guide 3.1]. They have built up economic activity in cores/global hubs [Guide 1.2], attracting migrants as part of local and global backwash processes. The global map of economic activity and wealth strongly mirrors the geography of TNCs. Some TNCs are arguably more powerful, and demonstrably more wealthy, than some nation states [Guide 6.1].

TNCs innovate glocally as part of their growth strategy [Guide 7.1 and 7.2] and this provides an extra dimension to global interactions (which include social, cultural and political interactions). TNCs can be seen to have a role too as internet service providers [Guide 2.2] and major media and branded corporations (for example, Disney) [Guide 5.2].

The alternate viewpoint is that TNCs are not acting alone and other actors have a role in shaping global interactions. These include:

• Multi-governmental organizations (MGOs) [Guide 6.1 and 3.1] who design the legal infrastructure for investment without which TNCs could not operate on a global scale as effectively – the provision of SEZs (special economic zones) is also very important, for example, for China to attract FDI. 
• The Washington IMF-led neo-liberal project/global harmonization, for example, through SAPs (structural adjustment programmes)/guiding actions of WTO/World Bank are all an important part of the economic counter-argument [Guide 3.1].

More broadly, technology could be cast as an autonomous actor that has its own role to play [Guide 2.2 and 3.2] and helps drive cultural interactions [Guide 5.1], for example, growth of Facebook.

High-scoring evaluative answers may show that the power of TNCs is exercised alongside/in tandem with political power (the idea that economic globalization has been led by the USA acting as a “superpower” in the best interests of its TNCs).

Answers that address both sides of the argument are likely to reach band D. To reach band E, there should also be balance and some sophisticated analysis.

While the topic of food miles was a familiar one for most candidates, the question as written proved to be a struggle for some, who were unable to frame a response around the strengths and weaknesses of “the concept of food miles” (that is, the conception that the footprint of a product can be accounted for by using the distance it has travelled as a proxy). Instead, many wrote about the costs and benefits of long-distance sourcing of food, both for producers and consumers. Wherever possible, some sympathetic credit was given for this approach, although it was rare to see such an answer progress beyond band C.

Many candidates could write at length about TNCs, especially the “familiar faces” of McDonald’s and Disney. It is a pity that there is less evidence of candidates and centres undertaking individual research into alternative case studies (of which there is no shortage, after all). Generally, most could “play off” the importance of TNCs (as actors) against other forces, typically technology and MGOs (such as the EU, UN and occasionally the IMF). A few grasped that TNCs drive economic and cultural interactions in tandem with other actors who are busy promoting political globalization.  A very few could take this further still, delivering a holistic “big picture” of political and economic interactions driven by a nexus of powerful governments, corporations and institutions. One candidate even knew of Nixon’s past as a lawyer for Pepsi – gleaned from watching the classic Burp! Documentary by John Pilger, perhaps?