Using examples, explain the relationship between transport innovation and reduced friction of distance.

“Every country will eventually lose its distinctive national identity as a result of global interactions.” Discuss this statement.

Friction of distance is the barrier to the exchange of goods, services, ideas created by slow/limited/expensive transport. Over time, increased connectivity through transport has reduced friction of distance (changing our perception of time/space barriers).

Candidates may explore the relationship through the use of a timeline, and perhaps a diagram, showing how transport times have fallen as a result of successive transport “revolutions” (bicycle, boat, car train, ’plane, etc). Also credit accompanying technologies eg refrigeration for perishables and intermodal transport. Candidates may be familiar with the associated geographical concept of time–space convergence (in other words, we perceive that we inhabit a “shrinking world” as distant places “feel” nearer). Done well, this could be sufficient for the higher mark bands.

A different approach might be to look at more detailed case studies of particular technologies and their application (eg the speed with which flowers from Kenya are flown to Europe; or the speed with which containers can bring manufactured goods from EPZs in China to the USA). This approach is sufficient for band D even if the “relationship” is not particularly clear.

Finally, the subject guide specifies that candidates should have studied speed and capacity changes for two types of transport network. They might draw on this as part of their answer. However, they should be careful to focus on the reduced friction of
distance as the network is modernized, or extended into areas that were previously “switched off” (and thus took a longer time to reach).

Credit may be given for some discussion of the role that telecom networks play in transporting data and information, “eradicating” the friction of distance altogether.

Band C answers are likely to describe some specific details of transport history, but with little/no development of “friction of distance” (besides saying it has lessened).

At band D, expect either a clearer explanation of the changing relationship over time (may use the concept of time–space convergence) or effective use of detailed examples to explain how transport connects distant places together with reduced
travel time.

For band E, expect both.

Credit all content in line with the markbands. Credit unexpected approaches wherever relevant.

The focus should be national (or group) identity although credit can be given for groups within a nation eg Amish (USA), Welsh (UK), tribes (Amazon). Discussion of a diaspora’s “national” identity (eg the identity of the Chinese in USA) may also be credited. Expect candidates to take a range of approaches and to hold a range of views about what factors or processes make a place distinctive/less distinctive.

Possible themes for discussion in agreement with the statement:

• a range of issues can be discussed pertaining to cultural dilution/cultural imperialism/immigration/multiculturalism [Guide 5]. Different cultural traits may be discussed eg language, diet, music, religion, etc
• evidence may be cited in support of the proposition that increasing cultural homogeneity is unavoidable/irreversible, for instance international migration or the spread of branded commodities [Guide 5] or the homogenization of urban/cultural landscapes [Guide 4]
• sovereign states risk losing political autonomy due to their membership of MGOs (especially the case for the EU) or in relation to wealth/leverage of TNCs [Guide 6], influence of IMF/World Bank [Guide 3]. 

Possible themes for discussion in disagreement with the statement:

• many countries have experienced a resurgence in nationalism/regionalism [Guide 6], for instance as evidenced by programmes of nationalization (Bolivia) or attempts to limit the dominance of English (in France’s case)
• there are instances of states or societies opting out of globalization/isolationism (eg, China’s stance on internet access; North Korea or until recently Myanmar; Amish communities in USA) [Guide 7]
• glocalized/hybrid outcomes can still be highly distinctive or unique [Guide 7]. 

A more critical, thoughtful or nuanced response might take the view that:

• national identity has many aspects, not all of which are threatened, eg, by MGO membership [Guide 6]
• other foci for identity may be becoming more important than national identity for many people, eg, diaspora identity.

At band C, some impacts on national/group identity/culture should be described and linked with global interactions such as migration, information flow etc. 

Band D should either provide a wider and more balanced discussion of the statement or offer a more critical discussion of what is meant by “distinctive national identity”.

At band E, expect both.

“Friction of distance” and transport innovation appears to be a well-understood and well-learned area of the curriculum. Even the weakest candidates were able to provide a short descriptive account of different modes of transport improving over time (in terms of the reduced time taken to move people or goods between locations). Many had learned the topic in advance in some depth, with accompanying locational details and data. This was not, however, always sufficient to reach the highest markband available. Some conceptual sophistication was also expected, such as clear, well-explained linkages with the concept of time–space convergence (or time–space compression). Alternatively, greater geographical knowledge was expected of how, in context, the friction of distance has lessened for specific global flows, such as commodity movements, thereby linking specific locales (such as the flower farms sited around Lake Naivasha, Kenya and the flower markets near Old Street, London, England). In contrast, band C answers often provided greater detail of, say, the technical specifications of jet engines, yet went on to merely assert that this allows “people” to “move around the world quicker”.

Many candidates performed a synthesis of the following topics: the influence of the McDonald’s corporation, national membership of trade blocs (especially the EU), the spread of English at the expense of native languages, the erosion of national traditions as a result of indigenous peoples’ contact with tourists, the dissemination of music and film through the internet, the growing homogenization of world cities, the prosperity of diaspora populations, and the resurgence of nationalism as a reaction to globalization (some candidates showed good contemporary knowledge of political movements in the EU). Arranged in a way that provided both support for, and rejection of, the statement, this was usually sufficient for band D. However, the sophistication with which these complex ideas were handled usually left a lot to be desired in work around the C/D boundary (see comments below on how performance could be improved in the future).